purpose of footnotes in a research report

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What are Footnotes and How to Use Them for Research?

The research process is inherently collaborative, involving the analysis of the collective body of knowledge developed over time. It is academically and ethically vital to acknowledge others’ contributions. Footnotes serve as subtle markers of acknowledgment while also providing supplementary details to enhance the reader’s understanding and engagement with your work. 

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What are footnotes?   

During your research, you’ll encounter inconspicuous superscript numbers at the end of some sentences, which link to corresponding notes at the page’s bottom or ‘foot.’ These notes serve as references to cited works and offer supplementary information to aid the reader’s understanding.  

It’s important to note that not all references and supplementary notes are at the bottom of the page; some are placed at the end of the research paper as “endnotes.” This doesn’t lessen their significance; they still offer valuable context and insights. 

Footnotes vs Endnotes  

Footnotes and endnotes fulfill the same fundamental purpose in scholarly writing. However, the choice between them often reflects an author’s personal preference or aligns with specific style guidelines. Footnotes are frequently utilized for immediate comments or explanations related to the main text. On the other hand, endnotes are commonly reserved for citations of the works referenced within the text.  

Let’s examine footnotes and endnotes more closely to understand the distinctions between these two citation methods: 

Footnotes are highly effective due to their ease of access and their ability to direct readers to relevant citations or supplementary ideas swiftly. This approach increases the likelihood that readers will engage with the citation or additional information. However, the limited space at the bottom of the page necessitates caution. Overloading it with excessive other text can be overwhelming and potentially distracting for readers.  

Endnotes, in contrast, offer the advantage of being located at the end of a paper within a designated section, giving authors the freedom to incorporate supplementary information liberally without the need to use up the limited space on a page. However, endnotes are often overlooked by readers. This oversight can be attributed to a mental justification that if information is not included in the main text, it may not hold significant value.¹²

Footnote Citation Styles  

Incorporating footnotes into your research paper is crucial, but it’s equally important to grasp the specific footnote citation style required by your target journal or publication. The format and style of footnote citations can differ significantly based on the citation style guide in use. Below, you’ll find illustrative examples of how to use footnotes in essays according to the central style guides:¹

Chicago Style  

The Chicago Style uses footnotes to provide full source details in the form of numbered notes at the bottom of each page. A corresponding bibliography is provided at the end of the research essay or document. Here is an example: 

“The Apollo program was designed by men, for men. If we do not acknowledge the gender bias of the early space program, it becomes difficult to move past it.” ¹ 

1.1 Mary Robinette Kowal, To Make It to the Moon, Women Have to Escape Earth’s Gender Bias (New York Times, 17 July 1969). 

In this example, the superscript “1” in the text corresponds to the first footnote, which provides complete source information for an article by Mary Robinette Kowal in The New York Times. 

Modern Language Association (MLA) Style

The MLA Style does not typically use footnotes for citations. Instead, it relies on in-text citations with an author-page number format. However, the footnotes might be utilized for explanatory or supplementary information. Example: 

“The protagonist’s transformation throughout the novel is central to its theme and character development.” 1 

1 This analysis draws on the ideas of literary critic John Smith regarding character evolution in narrative fiction. 

In this example, the superscript “1” in the main text points to a footnote that offers additional context and acknowledges the source, i.e., John Smith’s ideas. 

American Psychological Association (APA) Style

APA Style typically uses in-text citations rather than footnotes. However, you may use footnotes for clarifications or additional information, not for standard source citations. Here is an example: 

“The study’s results revealed a statistically significant correlation between the two variables^1^.” 

^1^ Note that the p-value was set at 0.05 as the threshold for statistical significance. 

In the example, the superscript “^1^” in the main text indicates a footnote, which is used to provide a brief explanation. 

How to add Footnotes in Microsoft Word and Google Docs?  

So, how do you make footnotes? Adding footnotes in both Microsoft Word and Google Docs is a straightforward process. Step-by-step instructions are provided below for adding footnotes in both applications: 

Microsoft Word  

• Position your cursor where you want to insert a footnote in the document. 
• Navigate to the “References” tab and click on the “Insert Footnote” button. 
• A small superscript number (typically “1”) will appear where you positioned the cursor, and a corresponding footnote area will appear at the bottom of the page. Enter your footnote content in this designated area. 
• To insert additional footnotes, repeat the same steps. Microsoft Word will automatically manage the numbering of footnotes. (4) 

Google Docs  

• Place the cursor at the location where you wish to insert a footnote. 
• In the menu bar, click on “Insert” and select “Footnote.” 
• A superscript number (usually “1”) will appear where you placed your cursor, and a footnote section will be created at the bottom of the page. Type your footnote content in this section. 
• Add more footnotes using the same steps. Google Docs will handle the footnotes numbering. (5) 

References:  

• Footnotes and Endnotes  – Khalifa University 
• Footnotes and Endnotes  – University of Bristol 
• Footnote Referencing Styles  – Bibliography.com 
• Add footnotes and endnotes  – Microsoft Support 
• Use headers, footers, page numbers, & footnotes – Google Docs Editors Help 

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How to Use Footnotes in Research Papers

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A footnote is a reference, explanation, or comment 1 placed below the main text on a printed page. Footnotes are identified in the text by a numeral  or a  symbol .  

In research papers and reports , footnotes commonly acknowledge the sources of facts and quotations that appear in the text.

" Footnotes are the mark of a scholar," says Bryan A. Garner. "Overabundant, overflowing footnotes are the mark of an insecure scholar — often one who gets lost in the byways of analysis and who wants to show off" ( Garner's Modern American Usage , 2009).

Examples and Observations

• " Footnotes: vices . In a work containing many long footnotes, it may be difficult to fit them onto the pages they pertain to, especially in an illustrated work."
• " Content footnotes  supplement or simplify substantive information in the text; they should not include complicated, irrelevant, or nonessential information..." " Copyright permission footnotes  acknowledge the source of lengthy quotations, scale and test items, and figures and tables that have been reprinted or adapted."
• Content Footnotes "What, after all, is a content footnote but material that one is either too lazy to integrate into the text or too reverent to discard? Reading a piece of prose that constantly dissolves into extended footnotes is profoundly disheartening. Hence my rule of thumb for footnotes is exactly the same as that for  parentheses . One should regard them as symbols of failure. I hardly need to add that in this vale of tears failure is sometimes unavoidable."
• Footnote Forms All notes have the same general form: 1. Adrian Johns. The Nature of the Book: Print and Knowledge in the Making (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 623. If you cite the same text again, you can shorten subsequent notes: 5. Johns. Nature of the Book , 384-85.
• The Disadvantages of Footnotes "More than one recent critic has pointed out that footnotes interrupt a narrative . References detract from the illusion of veracity and immediacy . . . . (Noel Coward made the same point more memorably when he remarked that having to read a footnote resembles having to go downstairs to answer the door while in the midst of making love.)"
• Belloc on Footnotes "[L]et a man put his foot-notes in very small print indeed at the end of a volume, and, if necessary, let him give specimens rather than a complete list. For instance, let a man who writes history as it should be written — with all the physical details in evidence, the weather, the dress, colors, everything — write on for the pleasure of his reader and not for his critic. But let him take sections here and there, and in an appendix show the critic how it is being done. Let him keep his notes and challenge criticism. I think he will be secure. He will not be secure from the anger of those who cannot write clearly, let alone vividly, and who have never in their lives been able to resurrect the past, but he will be secure from their destructive effect."
• The Lighter Side of Footnotes "A footnote is like running downstairs to answer the doorbell on your wedding night."

1 "The footnote has figured prominently in the fictions of such leading contemporary novelists as Nicholson Baker 2 , David Foster Wallace 3 , and Dave Eggers. These writers have largely revived the digressive function of the footnote." (L. Douglas and A. George, Sense and Nonsensibility: Lampoons of Learning and Literature . Simon and Schuster, 2004)

2 "[T]he great scholarly or anecdotal footnotes of Lecky, Gibbon, or Boswell, written by the author of the book himself to supplement, or even correct over several later editions, what he says in the primary text, are reassurances that the pursuit of truth doesn't have clear outer boundaries: it doesn't end with the book; restatement and self-disagreement and the enveloping sea of referenced authorities all continue. Footnotes are the finer-suckered surfaces that allow tentacular paragraphs to hold fast to the wider reality of the library." (Nicholson Baker, The Mezzanine . Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1988)

3 "One of the odd pleasures in reading the work of the late David Foster Wallace is the opportunity to escape from the main text to explore epic footnotes , always rendered at the bottoms of pages in thickets of tiny type." (Roy Peter Clark, The Glamour of Grammar . Little, Brown, 2010)

• Hilaire Belloc,  On , 1923
• Chicago Manual of Style , University of Chicago Press, 2003
• Anthony Grafton,  The Footnote: A Curious History . Harvard University Press, 1999.
• Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 6th ed., 2010.
• Paul Robinson, "The Philosophy of Punctuation."  Opera, Sex, and Other Vital Matters . University of Chicago Press, 2002.
• Kate Turabian,  A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations , 7th ed. University of Chicago Press, 2007 .
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Endnote Note citing a particular source or making a brief explanatory comment placed at the end of a research paper and arranged sequentially in relation to where the reference appears in the paper.

Footnote Note citing a particular source or making a brief explanatory comment placed at the bottom of a page corresponding to the item cited in the corresponding text above.

Fiske, Robert Hartwell. To the Point: A Dictionary of Concise Writing . New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2014.

Structure and Writing Style

Advantages of Using Endnotes

• Endnotes are less distracting to the reader and allows the narrative to flow better.
• Endnotes don't clutter up the page.
• As a separate section of a research paper, endnotes allow the reader to read and contemplate all the notes at once.

Disadvantages of Using Endnotes

• If you want to look at the text of a particular endnote, you have to flip to the end of the research paper to find the information.
• Depending on how they are created [i.e., continuous numbering or numbers that start over for each chapter], you may have to remember the chapter number as well as the endnote number in order to find the correct one.
• Endnotes may carry a negative connotation much like the proverbial "fine print" or hidden disclaimers in advertising. A reader may believe you are trying to hide something by burying it in a hard-to-find endnote.

Advantages of Using Footnotes

• Readers interested in identifying the source or note can quickly glance down the page to find what they are looking for.
• It allows the reader to immediately link the footnote to the subject of the text without having to take the time to find the note at the back of the paper.
• Footnotes are automatically included when printing off specific pages.

Disadvantages of Using Footnotes

• Footnotes can clutter up the page and, thus, negatively impact the overall look of the page.
• If there are multiple columns, charts, or tables below only a small segment of text that includes a footnote, then you must decide where the footnotes should appear.
• If the footnotes are lengthy, there's a risk they could dominate the page, although this issue is considered acceptable in legal scholarship.
• Adding lengthy footnotes after the paper has been completed can alter the page where other sources are located [i.e., a long footnote can push text to the next page].
• It is more difficult learning how to insert footnotes using your word processing program than simply adding endnotes at the end of your paper.

Things to keep in mind when considering using either endnotes or footnotes in your research paper :

1.    Footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout a research paper, except for those notes accompanying special material (e.g., figures, tables, charts, etc.). Numbering of footnotes are "superscript"--Arabic numbers typed slightly above the line of text. Do not include periods, parentheses, or slashes. They can follow all punctuation marks except dashes. In general, to avoid interrupting the continuity of the text, footnote numbers are placed at the end of the sentence, clause, or phrase containing the quoted or paraphrased material. 2.    Depending on the writing style used in your class, endnotes may take the place of a list of resources cited in your paper or they may represent non-bibliographic items, such as comments or observations, followed by a separate list of references to the sources you cited and arranged alphabetically by the author's last name. If you are unsure about how to use endnotes, consult with your professor. 3.    In general, the use of footnotes in most academic writing is now considered a bit outdated and has been replaced by endnotes, which are much easier to place in your paper, even with the advent of word processing programs. However, some disciplines, such as law and history, still predominantly utilize footnotes. Consult with your professor about which form to use and always remember that, whichever style of citation you choose, apply it consistently throughout your paper.

NOTE:   Always think critically about the information you place in a footnote or endnote. Ask yourself, is this supplementary or tangential information that would otherwise disrupt the narrative flow of the text or is this essential information that I should integrate into the main text? If you are not sure, it's better to work it into the text. Too many notes implies a disorganized paper.

Cermak, Bonni and Jennifer Troxell. A Guide to Footnotes and Endnotes for NASA History Authors . NASA History Program. History Division; Hale, Ali. Should You Use Footnotes or Endnotes? DailyWritingTips.com; Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Lunsford, Andrea A. and Robert Connors. The St. Martin's Handbook . New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989; Saller, Carol. “Endnotes or Footnotes? Some Considerations.” The Chronicle of Higher Education 58 (January 6, 2012): http://chronicle.com/blogs/linguafranca/2012/01/06/endnotes-or-footnotes-some-considerations/.

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The footnotes and bibliography in any scholarly work have two purposes:

• to acknowledge the author's debt to the work of others
• to enable the reader to locate the sources consulted by the author

To do that, your footnotes and bibliography need to include complete and accurate information about your sources, arranged in a consistent way that does not confuse your reader. At this point in your research, you will all have encountered unhelpful footnotes with mysterious abbreviations, incorrect information, or other problems. 

There are many ways to arrange the information. This is called "style" and there are several common styles in use. Historians generally prefer the style defined by The Chicago Manual of Style , now in its 16th edition. You may have been asked to use other styles for courses in other departments, for example MLA or APA. Always check with your reader to find out if he/she cares about which style you use. When you write for publication, the publisher or journal editor will tell you which style they want you to use.

Why does it matter? Correct style will make things easier for your reader. And you want the reader to think about your ideas, not the messy punctuation at the bottom of the page.

History department guidelines:

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What Are They

Footnotes are short numbered notes that are placed at the bottom of the page in an essay or article. They are used for a variety of reasons including, citing materials, providing notes on a source or topic, and to acknowledge copyright status. 

Although you will find footnotes in many journal articles, they are not typically required in APA or MLA formatted essays. They are most heavily used when applying the CMOS style. 

For information on footnotes in the  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association  see section 2.13 "Footnotes.". For information on using footnotes with MLA see the " Using Notes in MLA Style " article from the MLA Style Center .  For information on footnotes in  The Chicago Manual of Style  see Chapter 14 "Notes and Bibliography."

Using Google Docs:

• Cómo incorporar notas al calce en Google Docs Vea éste video en español.

Using Microsoft Word:

• Cómo incorporar notas al calce en Microsoft Word Vea éste video en español.
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How to Write Footnotes

Information on how to write footnotes and endnotes. Footnotes, a type of citation format, are most often used for history and philosophy papers. As such, scientists rarely encounter it, but it is still useful to know how to follow the practice.

This article is a part of the guide:

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Many biology journals, for example, prefer footnotes because they allow annotation of the in-text citation on the same page.

Whilst footnotes are a little more cumbersome than the 'author/date' system, they are useful where sources require elaboration and short explanatory notes.

What is a Footnote

The footnote takes the form of a superscripted number, just after a paraphrased piece of information. Subsequently, a cross-reference to this number is inserted at the bottom of the same page.

In fact, for dissertations and theses, many writers use footnotes to keep track of their citations , adding a short note of what exactly each one adds to the paper.

Once the paper is complete, the writer converts them to endnotes at the end or every chapter, or even removes them all together, and uses a standard APA or MLA bibliography instead.

Automatically Inserting Footnotes

The reason that footnotes are still popular in some fields is that most word processing programs now include a function that makes it very easy to include footnotes in any paper.

In Microsoft Word, clicking Insert > Reference > Footnote allows you to insert footnotes automatically, and automatically numbers them. This function is so useful, that even if you cut and paste, and swap information around, it automatically adjusts the footnotes.

This is why it is an excellent resource for keeping track of your sources during the course of a research paper .

How to Write Footnotes - Protocols

If you are using footnotes, the common convention is to insert a full citation, including author, year and the title of the book, followed by the page number. Afterwards, the surname of the author and the page number is sufficient.

Older journals often use the word ibid, to show that a footnote uses the same source as the previous one, but this has become much rarer.

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What are Footnotes? A Comprehensive Guide to Use Them

27th February 2024

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Footnotes serve as vital tools in academic and professional writing, offering a means to provide supplementary information, citations, or commentary without interrupting the flow of the main text. Whether you’re drafting a scholarly article, a research paper, or a business report, understanding how to effectively utilise and manage footnotes can enhance the clarity and credibility of your work. In this guide, we’ll explore what footnotes are, how to write them, and the process of adding and removing footnotes in both Microsoft Word and Google Docs.

What Are Footnotes?

Footnotes are textual references or annotations placed at the bottom of a page in a document. They are used to provide additional information, citations, explanations, or comments related to specific points within the main text. Footnotes are typically numbered sequentially throughout the document, with corresponding superscript numbers or symbols inserted within the text to indicate where the footnote reference appears.

How to Write Footnotes

Writing footnotes involves following a standardised format to ensure clarity and consistency. Here’s a basic outline of how to write footnotes:

• Insert the Superscript Number: Within the main text, place a superscript number or symbol after the relevant phrase, sentence, or passage that requires a footnote reference.
• Compose the Footnote Text: At the bottom of the page, below the main text, provide the corresponding footnote text. This may include citations, additional information, explanations, or comments related to the referenced content.
• Format the Footnote: Format the footnote text according to the appropriate citation style guide (e.g. Oxford, MHRA, Chicago). Ensure that the formatting is consistent and adheres to the specific guidelines outlined in your chosen style manual.

How to Add and Remove Footnotes in Word

Microsoft Word provides user-friendly tools for adding and removing footnotes. Here’s how to do it:

Adding Footnotes:

• Place your cursor at the end of the word or phrase where you want to insert the footnote reference.
• Navigate to the “References” tab in the Word toolbar.
• Click on the “Insert Footnote” button or use the shortcut Ctrl+Alt+F for Windows or Command+Option+F for Mac.
• Word will automatically insert a superscript number and create a corresponding footnote at the bottom of the page.
• Type your footnote text in the newly created footnote area.

Removing Footnotes:

• Position your cursor within the main text where the footnote reference appears.
• Right-click on the footnote reference number.
• Select “Remove Footnote” from the context menu. Word will delete the footnote reference and remove the corresponding footnote text.

How to Add and Remove Footnotes in Google Docs

Google Docs offers simple methods for adding and removing footnotes within your documents:

• Click on “Insert” in the Google Docs toolbar or use the shortcut Ctrl+Alt+F for Windows or Command+Option+F for Mac.
• Select “Footnote” from the dropdown menu. Google Docs will insert a superscript number and create a corresponding footnote at the bottom of the page.
• Select “Delete” from the context menu. Google Docs will remove the footnote reference and delete the corresponding footnote text.

Footnotes VS Endnotes

Footnotes and endnotes are occasionally confused. As their names imply, footnotes are situated at the bottom of the page, while endnotes are found at the conclusion of the document. The choice between footnotes and endnotes often depends on the author’s preference, the style guide used, and the document’s purpose. Footnotes are ideal for providing immediate reference to the reader, while endnotes are useful for reducing clutter on the page. When deciding between the two, consider the conventions of your field and the readability of your document.

Let Us Help You Format Your Academic Documents

Footnotes play a crucial role in enhancing the clarity, credibility, and professionalism of your written work. By learning how to write and manage your footnotes, you can elevate the quality and readability of your documents across various contexts and disciplines.  

Formatting academic documents can be a daunting task, but you don’t have to tackle it alone. Our team is here to assist you in formatting your academic papers , ensuring that your footnotes, citations, and references meet the highest standards of clarity and professionalism. Whether you need guidance on citation styles, assistance with document formatting, or support in navigating the intricacies of academic writing, we’re here to help. Reach out to us today and let’s collaborate to elevate the quality of your academic work.

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Footnotes in a Research Paper: Why They Matter and How to Use Them

• by Sean Brown
• October 29, 2023

Accurately citing sources is a crucial aspect of any research paper. As researchers, we rely on the work of others to support and strengthen our arguments. But how do we give credit where credit is due without disrupting the flow of our own writing? This is where footnotes come into play.

In this blog post, we will explore the purpose of footnotes in a research paper and why they are an essential tool for any serious scholar. We will delve into questions such as why footnotes and endnotes are important, how to create a list of footnotes, and the difference between footnotes and a bibliography. So, whether you’re a student aiming for academic excellence or a seasoned researcher looking to enhance the credibility of your work, this post will provide you with valuable insights on how to effectively incorporate footnotes into your writing.

So, grab your pens and get ready to unravel the mystery behind footnotes. Let’s dive in!

What is the Purpose of Footnotes in a Research Paper

In a world filled with abbreviations and acronyms, footnotes are like the quirky cousin who doesn’t quite fit in. They may not be everyone’s cup of tea, but they serve an important purpose in the realm of research papers. So, let’s put on our detective hats and uncover the mystery behind footnotes!

Establishing Credibility with Sources

Footnotes play a crucial role in research papers by providing a way to cite and acknowledge the sources used. They give your work a hefty dose of credibility, sort of like adding sprinkles to an already delicious cupcake. By including footnotes, you show that you’ve done your homework and borrowed insights from respected experts in the field, making your paper stand tall amidst a sea of academic work.

Avoiding the Dreaded Plagiarism Monster

Plagiarism, the monster that strikes fear into the hearts of all honest researchers. Footnotes act as your trusty sidekick, helping you steer clear of this dreaded creature. When you include a footnote, you’re essentially saying, “Hey, reader, I got this idea from someone else. I’m not trying to pull a fast one on you!” It’s like having an alibi for every tidbit of information you include in your research paper.

Digging Deeper into the Rabbit Hole

Footnotes are not just about giving credit where credit is due. They also offer a chance for readers to dive deeper into the rabbit hole of knowledge. Picture yourself as Alice and footnotes as the portals to Wonderland. By including additional information or references in footnotes, you give curious readers the opportunity to explore further, discover new insights, and nerd out on the topic. It’s like leaving them a hidden treasure map that leads to a chest full of intellectual goodies.

Keeping Your Flow Smooth and Steady

Now, you might be thinking, “But footnotes disrupt the flow of my masterpiece!” Fear not, dear writer, for footnotes can actually help maintain a smooth and steady flow. Instead of squeezing lengthy explanations or side thoughts into your main text, you can simply drop them down a rabbit hole (aka a footnote). This helps you maintain a logical and coherent structure in your research paper, while still providing additional context for those who seek it. It’s like having a secret passage that doesn’t clutter up your beautiful writing.

Making Your Life (and Your Reader’s Life) Easier

Imagine reading a research paper without footnotes. You come across an intriguing idea, a pearl of wisdom, or a captivating fact, and you think, “Wait, where did this come from? Where can I find more?” Footnotes save the day by answering these burning questions. They provide a neat little roadmap to the sources you used, making it easy for your curious readers to embark on their own intellectual journey. It’s like being a tour guide for your research paper, ensuring your audience doesn’t get lost along the way.

Footnotes may seem like the oddballs of the research paper world, but they serve a crucial purpose. From establishing credibility to avoiding plagiarism and enhancing readability, footnotes are the unsung heroes of academic writing. So, embrace the quirkiness, my fellow researchers, and let footnotes add that extra oomph to your scholarly endeavors !

FAQ: What is the Purpose of Footnotes in a Research Paper

In the world of academia and research, footnotes play a vital role in providing additional information, citation, and acknowledging the ideas of others. If you’ve ever questioned the significance of footnotes in a research paper, this FAQ-style guide is here to address your queries and shed some light on the subject.

Why are Footnotes and Endnotes Important

Footnotes and endnotes are crucial elements in research papers for several reasons. Firstly, they allow scholars to provide additional commentary , explanations, or references without disrupting the flow of the main text. Secondly, footnotes enable readers to verify the sources and credibility of the information presented. Finally, footnotes demonstrate the author’s depth of research and acknowledge the contributions of other scholars.

How Do You Make a List of Footnotes

Creating a list of footnotes may seem like a daunting task, but fear not! Follow these simple steps to tackle it like a pro:

• Identify the point in the text where a footnote is needed.
• Place a superscript number (e.g., ^1^, ^2^, ^3^) after the relevant word or sentence.
• Scroll to the bottom of the page (or the end of the document) to find the corresponding numbered footnote.
• Write a concise explanation, reference, or commentary for the specific footnote.

The primary purpose of footnotes in a research paper is to provide additional information and acknowledge the sources used. Footnotes serve as a way to substantiate claims, direct readers to relevant resources, and ensure the transparency and credibility of the research conducted. Additionally, footnotes allow authors to expand upon certain points or provide interesting anecdotes that may enhance the reader’s understanding of the topic.

What is the Difference between Footnotes and Bibliography

Here’s the lowdown on the difference between footnotes and bibliography:

Footnotes are short, numbered references that appear at the bottom of each page or at the end of the document. They provide additional information, explanations, or citations for specific points made in the main text.

On the other hand, a bibliography is a separate section at the end of a paper that lists all the sources consulted and cited throughout the research. It provides a comprehensive collection of references for readers who wish to further explore the topic.

How Do You Do a Bibliography for Footnotes

When it comes to creating a bibliography for footnotes, here’s a simple approach:

• Compile a list of all the sources cited in your footnotes.
• Arrange the sources in alphabetical order, based on the author’s last name.
• Include all the necessary information for each source, such as the author’s name, publication title, date, and page numbers.
• Make sure to follow the specific citation style required by your academic institution or publisher, such as MLA, APA, or Chicago style.

Why Do We Need to Acknowledge the Ideas of Others

Acknowledging the ideas of others is not only a matter of academic integrity but also a way to give credit where credit is due. Research builds upon the work of previous scholars, and by recognizing their contributions, you show respect for the intellectual community and avoid plagiarism. Remember, standing on the shoulders of giants not only helps you see further but also establishes trust and credibility in your own research.

What Are the Purposes of Citation

Citation serves several essential purposes in research papers:

Giving credit : Citations acknowledge the original authors whose work you are referencing, ensuring ethical academic conduct.

Validation and credibility : By citing reputable sources, you provide evidence that supports and strengthens your own arguments.

Enabling verification : Readers can locate and review the sources you’ve cited, allowing them to evaluate the validity of your research and explore the topic further.

Building on existing knowledge : Citations provide a platform for future researchers to delve deeper into the topic and contribute new insights.

How Do You Footnote History

When it comes to footnoting history, here are a few tips to keep in mind:

Primary sources : In historical research, it’s essential to cite primary sources, such as original documents, letters, diaries, or firsthand accounts, to establish the authenticity of the information presented.

Secondary sources : Referencing credible secondary sources, such as scholarly articles or books, provides additional context, analysis, and interpretations of historical events or periods.

Specificity : Ensure your footnotes include specific page numbers, archival document references, or URLs (if applicable), allowing readers to locate the exact source you used.

What is the Meaning of Footnote

A footnote, quite literally, is a “note at the foot” of a page in a research paper or document. It is a numbered reference that provides additional information, citation, or commentary related to a specific point made in the main text. Footnotes are essential for offering readers an opportunity to explore sources in more detail while maintaining a smooth reading experience.

How Many Footnotes Is Too Many

While footnotes are undeniably valuable, it’s important to strike a balance. Too many footnotes can overload a research paper and distract readers from the main content. As a general rule, use footnotes sparingly, but when they add significant value or provide crucial references, don’t hesitate to incorporate them. Remember, clarity and readability should always be top priorities.

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Home / Guides / Citation Guides / Citation Basics / Differences Between Footnotes, Endnotes, and Parenthetical Citations

Differences Between Footnotes, Endnotes, and Parenthetical Citations

There is a lot of terminology when it comes to citations and giving proper credit to sources. Three of the terms that sometimes get mixed up are footnotes, endnotes, and parenthetical citations. Each is different, as we will see below.

No matter which of these types of in-text citations you use, you will need to include a works cited list or bibliography at the end of your paper that includes the full references for your sources. Your instructor may also ask you to create an annotated bibliography where you also include a short paragraph summarizing and evaluating each source along with its full reference.

Here’s a run-through of everything this page includes:

What is a footnote?

Footnotes vs. endnotes, parenthetical citations, troubleshooting.

A footnote is a type of in-text citation. The information in the text body is marked with a superscript number 1 (raised number), and the corresponding source citation and note is at the bottom (or the foot ) of the page the superscript appears on.

Both footnotes and endnotes are common writing tool features implemented when using various citation styles. They provide writers with a clear method in directing the reader to further information on the research topic and additional citations . Though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, footnotes and endnotes have a few key differences.

The most obvious difference between footnotes and endnotes is the placement of each within a paper. Footnotes are found at the bottom of a page (i.e. in the footer) and endnotes are located at the end of a complete document, or sometimes at the end of a chapter or section .

While the content in footnotes and endnotes can look the same, they serve different functions. Footnotes are used as a citation vehicle for a short citation, while endnotes can contain more text without compromising the format of the paper. They each also typically use a different numbering system, which allows the reader to determine where they should look for the additional information (either in the footer of the page, or at the end of the document).

APA format only uses parenthetical citations/reference list. MLA format can have footnotes and/or endnotes, but more commonly uses parenthetical citations and work cited. Chicago format almost always has footnotes or endnotes.

Both footnotes and endnotes tend to be supplemented by a bibliography or works cited page, which displays the complete citation of each source the writer cited in each footnote and endnote throughout their paper. Depending on the citation style, the footnote/endnote entry provides more specific location information than the entry in the bibliography. For instance, when citing a whole book in Chicago Manual of Style, the page number of the cited information is contained in the footnote, whereas this localized information is omitted from that source’s entry in the bibliography.

Footnote Entry Example :

F. Scott Fitzgerald, This Side of Paradise (New York: Scribner, 1920), 25.

Bibliography Entry Example :

Fitzgerald, F. Scott. This Side of Paradise . New York: Scribner, 1920.

Parenthetical Citations are citation tools commonly used in APA and format  MLA format . They usually contain the cited works author’s name, and an additional piece of information that further describes the source, usually the publication date of the source or the page number where the cited material can be located within the source.

Parenthetical Citations are used directly following the quote or cited material written in the document. Typically, they come at the end of the sentence that contains the cited material. They let the reader know when the author is using information or words that are not their own. While they demonstrate that a citation is being made, they should not be treated as a substitute for quotation marks when an author’s words are being presented exactly. They should also be included even when paraphrasing someone else’s work.

Each parenthetical citation made in a document should correspond to an entry in a works cited page or reference list at the end of the document. The entry in the works cited or reference list provides further detail about the source being cited.

Parenthetical Citation Example:

(James, 2009)

Reference List Entry Example:

James, Henry. (2009). The ambassadors. Rockville, MD: Serenity Publishers.

Solution #1: How to choose between using footnotes, endnotes, or parenthetical in-text citations

1. Look at the citation style’s guidelines; what does it recommend to use for in-text citations?

Most citation styles favor a certain in-text citation format, but allow flexibility to use notes if needed.

Generally, use parenthetical in-text citations for these styles

• MLA — Notes are allowed in some cases (bibliographic notes, content notes), but are not often used. Click here for more information.
• APA– Notes are allowed in some cases (content footnotes, copyright attribution), but are not encouraged. Click here for more information.
• Chicago, author-date

Use notes for:

• Chicago, notes-bibliography

2. What in-text citation style does your instructor, journal, colleagues, or even area of expertise usually use?

Ask others or examine guidelines from your instructor or journal. Context matters! For example, Chicago style has two styles of citation: notes-bibliography (uses footnotes) and author-date (uses parentheticals).

• Notes-Bibliography :  Often used in the humanities.
• Author-Date:  Often used in the science and social sciences.

Solution #2: How to create small, raised numbers (superscript) numbers for footnotes

The small, raised numbers you see in footnotes are called superscript . It looks like this:

See the example of superscript at the end of this sentence. 1

Below, we will cover how to create superscript in a Google Doc, in a Word document, and via HTML.

• Highlight the number you want to turn into superscript.
• Go to the “Format” section and follow this page:  Format –> Text –> Superscript
• Select “Superscript” to format the number.
• Windows:   [Ctrl] and [.]
• Mac:  [Command] and [.]

Word document

• On the “Home” editing bar/menu, look for the superscript button. It looks like this: [X 2 ]

Place the number you want as super script with the tags ¹.

Find free citing help for  MLA format  at www.easybib.com! We also have guides to help anyone make APA citations for books, websites, and other sources.

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The DOI is not included in parenthetical citations. The DOI is usually only included in a source’s full reference in the bibliography.

For more information, see these guides on citing a journal in MLA and citing a journal in APA .

A parenthetical citation is a form of in-text citation. The only difference is it is enclosed in parentheses unlike a narrative citation (APA style) or a citation in prose (MLA style). Narrative citation and citation in prose are incorporated into the text and act as a part of the sentence along with the text.

Rutledge (2018) urged the need for a proper education system.

Parenthetical:

The need for a proper education system is urged (Rutledge, 2018).

Citation in prose:

First occurrence: Bill Rutledge urged the need for a proper education system.

Subsequent occurrences: Rutledge urged the need for a proper education system.

The need for a proper education system is urged (Rutledge).

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How to use Footnotes and Endnotes in academic papers

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• Charlesworth Author Services
• 28 January, 2022

How to use and write Footnotes and Endnotes in academic papers

Research papers and reports often include adjuncts such as charts and graphs, tables , diagrams, a hierarchy of headings, citations and references etc. Notes – whether footnotes or endnotes – are an important adjunct. They primarily serve the role of supplying additional information , which, if weaved into the main text, may reduce its ease of readability .

Footnotes vs. endnotes

• Location : By definition, footnotes appear at the foot of a page on which appears the text they support. Endnotes are placed at the end of a paper, a chapter or a book.
• Space : Footnotes, being located at the bottom of each individual page, are constrained by the amount of space available, whereas endnotes, located right at the end of the text, are afforded much more ample room.
• Amount of information (and flow) : The above point (space) is a useful distinction that tells readers what to expect. Footnotes offer small bits of information that you can choose to take in without breaking stride. You could take a quick look and return to the main text on the same page. On the other hand, endnotes may sometimes contain sizeable amounts of information, but you do not have to interrupt your reading of the main text. You can choose to read them once you have reached the end of the document.

Footnotes: Examples

As discussed, footnotes comprise small bits of information short enough to take in at a glance. Here are a couple of examples to illustrate the function of footnotes.

• A text may mention the name of an organisation and use a footnote to explain that the organisation had a different name in the past.
• A text may mention a certain sum of money in Korean Won, and the corresponding footnotes will indicate the equivalent sum in US dollars. 

Endnotes: Examples

As discussed too, endnotes can comprise much longer parcels of information. Here too are a couple of examples to illustrate the use of endnotes.

• While you may describe a certain method in your main text, you might use an endnote to outline in more detail some other tangential studies , perhaps from a slightly different field, which used that same method , the results they produced and why this may be of interest.
• You might cite an important quotation within the main body of your text and then include in a related endnote the full paragraph or section from which that quotation was taken, thus enabling interested readers to explore the wider context and additional insights if they wish. 

Usage in academic papers and digital documents

As an author of an academic paper, you can choose between footnotes and endnotes depending on how much additional information you want to give. Be aware, however, that footnotes and endnotes, especially endnotes, are virtually never used in research papers in the physical and biological sciences . They may sometimes be used in the social sciences and are more commonly seen in the humanities .

In digital documents, the distinction between footnotes and endnotes and their placement is less important, because the additional information can be connected to the main text with hyperlinks .

Writing footnotes and endnotes

• Superscripts and symbols : Within the main text, both footnotes and endnotes are typically signalled, or announced, using superscript numbers, although, for footnotes, other symbols such as a star or an asterisk (*), a dagger or obelisk (†), a double dagger or diesis (‡), a section mark (§), a pilcrow or blind p (¶), and so on are also employed, usually in that order. Do note that these symbols are never used with endnotes .
• Numbers : With numbered footnotes, the sequence either begins afresh on each page or can be continued throughout within a paper, a chapter (e.g. if the book has chapters by different contributors) or a book. Endnotes are always numbered and the sequence is always continuous .
• Heading for endnotes : Note that the heading for endnotes, when all of them are gathered at the end, is simply ‘Notes’ and not ‘Endnotes’.
• Footnotes for tables : Table titles, column or row headings, or specific cells within a table can all carry footnotes. Those footnotes are explained at the foot of the table in question and not at the foot of a page on which the table appears.

As a scholar, try to familiarise yourself with the idea of notes and their related mechanics as early on in your writing process as possible. These details can seem numerous at first, but once you master them, you will be able to spontaneously incorporate them into your writing.

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Footnotes and Endnotes: Introduction

• Introduction
• How to add a footnote
• Footnotes Vs Endnotes

What is a Footnote

Cite references or adding comments on a specific part of the paper or a sentence. They are usually placed at the bottom of the page. Footnotes are interesting comments as well as referring to other relevant and useful sources. They point out where the material is coming from, and where to look for extra sources on that topic.

An Endnote is a reference, comment, or explanation usually located at the end of the article, research paper and chapter.

Endnotes main purpose is to direct users to the original source of a quotation, paraphrase, or summary. They provide extra information and explanatory comments to the main text.

Users of academic and scholarly publications prefer footnotes to endnotes 

Where do you add a footnote mark?

The most preferred and the most common practice is to put the footnote at the end of the sentence after (any) punctuation mark.

To begin typing a new sentence or paragraph skip two spaces.

If the sentence has more than one footnote, add the footnote in the middle of the sentence right after the word you want to clarify, but this practice is not recommended, the best practice is:

• To be added at the end of the sentence or the end of the phrase.
• Should be added after a punctuation mark.
• If the footnote is not at the end of the sentence when you start a new paragraph or line skip only one space.

Adding Footnotes in Word 2013

Footnotes and endnotes often appear in the same discussion, and there is some confusion between the two terms. Let us clear up that confusion. Footnotes and endnotes are used in printed documents to explain, comment on, or provide references for a text in a report. Many people use footnotes for detailed comments and  endnotes  for citation of sources.

Footnotes  typically appear at the end of each page, whereas  endnotes  appear at the end of the document. Footnotes and endnotes consist of two linked parts – the note reference mark and the corresponding note text.

Insert A Footnote Or An Endnote

The numbering of footnotes and endnotes is done automatically by Microsoft Word. You can use a single numbering scheme throughout a document, or you can use different numbering schemes within each section in a paper. To insert a footnote or an endnote, place the cursor where you want the marker, then go to the References tab and click  Insert Endnote  or  Insert Footnote  (in the Footnotes group).

Word inserts the note reference mark (usually a sequential number) and places the insertion point in the text area of the new footnote or endnote.  You can format the footnote text like any other text (e.g. make it bold, italic, change the font etc.).

Once you’ve finished typing the endnote or footnote you can place the cursor back in the main body of your document to carry on amending it. To return to the reference mark in the paper, double-click the footnote or endnote reference mark. In fact, this works the other way around too: double click on the reference mark in the document to jump to the footnote or endnote.

When you add, delete, or move notes that have been automatically numbered, Word renumbers the footnote and endnote reference marks.

When you hover over a reference mark in your document, a tooltip will display that contains the text in the corresponding footnote/endnote.

Word keeps a record of each footnote and endnote you create, and you can see them all by clicking References > Captions > Cross-reference, We can use the list presented here to reuse footnotes and insert them elsewhere. However, cross-references have a limitation – if you add another footnote above the original one, the footnote number will update but the cross-reference number will not. To do this, you need to update all fields in the document. There are various ways to do this, but the easiest is to open “Print Preview”. This will update all cross-references to the correct numbers.

Note: If your footnotes were incorrectly numbered, your document might contain tracked changes. Accept the tracked changes, and then Word will correctly number the footnotes and endnotes.

A plethora of tutorials to get you up to speed with Microsoft Word 2013

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Footnotes and Endnotes: Do You Need Them?

Table of Contents (Guide To Publication)

Part ii: preparing, presenting and polishing your work – chapter 5, 5.2.2 footnotes and endnotes: do you need them.

Footnotes or endnotes – sometimes both in combination – were once staples of a scholarly paper, but they play a much smaller part in academic and scientific papers today, and many journals will ask that they be kept to a minimum or avoided altogether. Those journals that do allow notes will usually specify which they prefer – footnotes at the bottom of the pages or endnotes at the end of the document – and many will ask that either kind of notes be restricted to additional information and not used for referencing. This is because many journals now use author-date or numerical referencing styles, and referencing via footnotes or endnotes is a different style altogether, one almost exclusively restricted to the humanities (likely because of its capacity for accommodating a wide variety of sources) that tends to be used in books more than in journals.

When you’re using an author-date or numerical in-text referencing style, footnotes and endnotes should not be used exclusively for referencing or for providing full bibliographical information about sources. This does not mean, however, that you can’t use citations in your notes: on the contrary, you should treat notes just like any other part of your text, writing and punctuating them as full sentences and providing the same kind of short references you use in your text (see the footnote here for an example).[1] Your notes have to do more than simply provide references, however; they have to add information such as details, alternative approaches, additional evidence and the like to the main discussion.

[1] The most interesting aspect of Smith’s research from my perspective is that his ‘results did not reveal the trend of rapid deterioration noted in previous studies’ (2010, p. 222).

When you’re using an in-note style of referencing, on the other hand, footnotes and endnotes can exist for no other reason than to provide references. In this referencing system the notes generally provide complete bibliographical information when a source is first cited (as footnotes 1, 5 & 6 in this Guide do: see Sections 4.3, 6.2.1 & 7.3.3) and a shorter version of the reference (usually the author’s last name and a shortened title) for all subsequent citations of the same source. Using the Chicago style of referencing within notes as an example, the citations would appear in this format:

• Full footnote/endnote reference with page number: Kathryn Kerby-Fulton, Maidie Hilmo and Linda Olson, Opening Up Middle English Manuscripts: Literary and Visual Approaches (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012), 318.
• Subsequent footnote/endnote reference with page number: Kerby-Fulton, Hilmo and Olson, Opening Up Middle English Manuscripts , 318.

With this style of referencing, a reference list isn’t strictly necessary because all the bibliographical information required to find sources has already been provided in the notes, but a bibliography is sometimes included (see Section 5.2.3).

Although the primary function of footnotes or endnotes in an in-note referencing style is to provide citations and bibliographical information on sources, additional material of all kinds can also be included in the notes, making them a useful site for comparing and contrasting theories and evidence and results, and creating a kind of secondary dialogue within the discussion of a paper. However, many publishers now view such notes as clutter on the page and often relegate them as endnotes to the end of an article or chapter or book in order to avoid what is seen as an unattractive problem. Unfortunately, notes tend to be read less often when they appear at the end of a document rather than as footnotes on each page, so this fact should be considered when deciding whether to include notes in your paper or not, regardless of which referencing system you’re using. Check the journal guidelines, comply with any requirements and as a general rule for modern publication, use notes as little as possible – that is, only when you need to do so.

When you do use notes, remember that they should be written in full sentences and correctly punctuated – footnotes and endnotes are not the place for point-form information or English that is informal or shorthand. Note numbers generally take the form of superscript Arabic numerals (as I’ve used for the footnotes in this Guide; only very rarely are Roman numerals used) placed where they are most relevant in the text, but some journals ask that note numbers be enclosed in square brackets [1] or parentheses (1). Like numerical references, they usually follow full stops and commas,[1] and precede colons and semi-colons[2]; however, most journals that allow notes will provide some guidance on how to use them, so always consult and follow the guidelines. The font used in footnotes and endnotes should be the same as the font used in the main paper (although the automatic note function in a programme such as Word will often use a different one, so do watch for this and adjust the font if necessary), but the text in notes can be a little smaller than the text in the main document (a 10-point instead of 12-point font, for instance), so long as the text remains clear and legible in relation to the size of the main text and complies with any font size requirements provided by the journal.

[1] This example shows how to place a footnote number in relation to a comma or full stop. [2] This example shows how to place a footnote number in relation to a semi-colon or colon.

This article is part of a book called Guide to Academic and Scientific Publication: How To Get Your Writing Published in Scholarly Journals . It provides practical advice on planning, preparing and submitting articles for publication in scholarly journals.

Whether you are looking for information on designing an academic or scientific article, constructing a scholarly argument, targeting the right journal, following journal guidelines with precision, providing accurate and complete references, writing correct and elegant scholarly English, communicating with journal editors or revising your paper in light of that communication, you will find guidance, tips and examples in this manual.

This book is focusing on sound scholarly principles and practices as well as the expectations and requirements of academic and scientific journals, this guide is suitable for use in a wide variety of disciplines, including Economics, Engineering, the Humanities, Law, Management, Mathematics, Medicine and the Social, Physical and Biological Sciences .

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Footnotes in a Paper: How to Use Them Effectively in Your Writing

Discover the best way to use footnotes in a paper. Get expert tips on how to efficiently and effectively use footnotes in academic papers.

Footnotes in a paper can be a valuable tool in providing a way to supplement our writing with additional information, citations, and explanations without disrupting the flow of the main text. However, many writers may be unsure of when and how to use footnotes effectively. In this article, we will explore the importance and usage of footnotes in academic writing, and provide practical tips for incorporating footnotes into your own writing. Whether you are a seasoned academic writer or just starting out, understanding how to use footnotes can help you increase the clarity and credibility of your writing.

What Are Footnotes?

Footnotes are a useful tool in academic writing that allows for the inclusion of additional information or comments in a document or text. Typically denoted by a small number or symbol in the main text, footnotes in a paper appear at the bottom of the page and can serve a variety of purposes. For example, footnotes can be used to clarify a point, provide background information, or give credit to a source that is not directly quoted or referenced in the main text. They are also helpful in avoiding disruptions to the flow of the main text, particularly when lengthy citations or explanations are required. In short, footnotes provide readers with additional information or references related to specific sections of the text, making them a valuable tool for researchers.

How to Write a Footnote

To write a footnote for a paper, follow these general steps:

• Determine what information needs to be included in the footnote. This may include the author’s name, the title of the source, the publication date, the publisher, and the page number(s) you are referencing.
• Place the footnote number or symbol at the end of the sentence or clause that requires the footnote. The footnote number or symbol should be placed after the punctuation, such as a period or comma.
• Write the footnote itself at the bottom of the page. The first line of the footnote should be indented, and the subsequent lines should be flush with the left margin.
• Format the footnote according to the citation style you are using (e.g. MLA, APA , Chicago). Each citation style has specific rules for how footnotes should be formatted, so consult the appropriate style guide for details.
• If you are using a word processing program, such as Microsoft Word, you can use the “Insert Footnote” function to automatically insert footnotes and format them correctly.

Difference Between Footnotes and Endnotes

The main difference between footnotes and endnotes is their placement within a document. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page on which they are referenced, while endnotes appear at the end of a document, chapter, or section.

Here are some other differences between footnotes and endnotes:

Chicago Style Footnotes

Chicago-style footnotes are a common citation style used in research papers. In this format, footnotes are used to provide information about a source within the text. There are two types of Chicago-style footnotes: short form and long form. Short form citations include only the basic details of a source if a full bibliography is provided, while long form citations include a full citation the first time a source is cited, with subsequent citations using the short form. 

Here is an example of a Chicago-style footnote using the short form:

“The concept of social capital has been widely discussed in recent years, with Putnam’s Bowling Alone¹ being one of the most influential works in the field.” At the bottom of the page, the corresponding footnote would appear as: ¹ Putnam, Bowling Alone, 26.

Note that the author’s last name is listed first, followed by the abbreviated title of the work (in this case, “Bowling Alone”), and the page number where the information was found.

Here is a Chicago-style footnote using the short form example:

First reference: John Smith, The History of Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 25. Subsequent reference: Smith, The History of Chicago, 30.

Here is an example of a Chicago footnote in text:

“According to Smith, the notion of human rights can be traced back to ancient Greek philosophy.¹”² Bottom of page: ¹John Smith, The Origins of Human Rights (New York: Oxford University Press, 2021), 15. ²Smith, Origins of Human Rights, 22.

Learn how to make citations in Chicago style in our blog “ Chicago Style Citation Made Easy: Formatting and Examples “.

APA Style Footnotes

APA format generally uses parenthetical in-text citations instead of footnotes. However, there are two exceptions to this rule: content footnotes and copyright attribution. Content footnotes provide additional information on a single topic that does not fit coherently in the text, while copyright attribution footnotes are used when a writer uses a lengthy quotation or other copyrighted material, such as a stock photograph. Footnotes are formatted similarly to Chicago style, with sequential superscript numbers coming after the passage and the corresponding footnote at the bottom of the page.

Here’s an example of an APA-style footnote for supplementary information:

In-text: According to recent studies, the COVID-19 vaccine is highly effective in preventing infection and transmission of the virus.¹ Footnote: ¹For more information on the studies cited, see Smith et al. (2021) and Jones et al. (2022).

Learn how to make citations in APA style in our blog “ How to Make Citations using APA Formatting: A Guide “.

MLA Style Footnotes

MLA (Modern Language Association) style does not typically use footnotes. Instead, in-text citations are used to indicate the source of information or quotations. However, if footnotes are required for a specific publication or assignment, the following guidelines can be followed:

Placement: Footnotes should be placed at the bottom of the page on which the reference appears.

Numbering: Footnotes should be numbered consecutively throughout the paper using Arabic numerals. The number should be placed after any punctuation marks, such as periods or commas.

Formatting: Footnotes should be single-spaced and in a smaller font size than the main text.

Content: Footnotes should include bibliographic information for the source being cited, as well as any additional information necessary to clarify the reference. For example, a footnote for a book might include the author, title, publisher, and year of publication, while a footnote for a website might include the URL and date of access.

Example of MLA Style Footnote for a book:

John Doe, The History of Art (New York: Penguin Books, 2000), 24. Example of MLA Style Footnote for a website: “The Benefits of Exercise,” National Institutes of Health, accessed May 15, 2023, https://www.nih.gov/health-information/benefits-exercise .

A MLA Style footnote text example:

Text: According to a recent study, the use of social media can have negative effects on mental health (Johnson 36).² Footnote citation: ² Johnson, Sarah. “The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health.” Journal of Health Psychology, vol. 22, no. 1, 2018, pp. 35-44.

Learn how to make citations in MLA style in our blog “ A Writer’s Guide to MLA Format: How to Get It Right “.

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Headnotes or Footnotes? A Quick Guide on Organizing Your Research Paper

In academic writing, footnotes, endnotes, and headnotes provide additional information on a particular topic. They are placed in the document as a supplement to the main text. These notes can be inserted into the document as a footer or at the end of a chapter.

The notes should be kept as brief as possible. The objective is to provide more information without distracting the reader. We discuss the different types of notes, how to use them, and their pros and cons.

What Are They and Why Use Them?

A footnote is a reference placed at the bottom of a page or footer. They are referenced in the text in the same way as a citation i.e. the referenced text is followed by a superscript numeral ( 1 ), which corresponds to the numbered footnote at the bottom of the page. When writing your research paper , you would use a footnote for two major reasons:

• To cite sources of facts or quotations
• Provide additional information  

The two types of footnotes are:

• Content : Supplements or simplifies substantive information; not detailed.
• Copyright permission : Cites quoted text and any reprinted materials used in the text.

The format of footnotes is fairly standard (see below for specific rules) and is the same as that for references as follows:

Adrian Johns.  The Nature of the Book: Print and Knowledge in the Making (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 623.

When citing the same reference again, the footnote can be shortened as follows:

Johns.  Nature of the Book , 384–85.

Some older journals use “ ibid ” instead of a shortened version of the reference. Ibid is short for the Latin “ ibidem” , which means “in the same place.” This format was previously used in most printed text but rarely used now.

Endnotes are much the same as footnotes except that they are placed at the end your research paper instead of at the bottom of a page. In books, they can be placed after each chapter or at the end of the book.

In many cases, the book publisher decides the best placement. Endnotes, as footnotes, are numerically noted in superscript. The format is the same as that for footnotes.

Headnotes are used as introductions in legal documents or as summaries of the text that follows them. In academic writing, headnotes are explanatory notes included with tables and figures. They are placed below the table itself or just below the figure title and typed in a font size that is smaller than the main text (e.g., 8- or 10-point font). Headnotes are used to define acronyms used, units of measure, significance, etc. Because tables and figures should be able to “stand alone” without the main text, headnotes should always be used.

Format for Footnotes, Endnotes, and Headnotes

Although the format for footnotes and endnotes is almost similar, there are specific rules depending on the journal where the paper is submitted. Most scientific journals use specific reference formats; however, some style guides do not allow footnotes and endnotes.

For example, the Modern Language Association (MLA), which deals specifically with disciplines in the humanities allows limited use of footnotes. These are to provide the reader with other sources for more information on the subject covered. The MLA style for these notes is shown in the example below and the number corresponds to the superscript number noted in the referenced text:

See [name of author], especially chapters 3 and 4, for an insightful analysis of this trend.

MLA suggests using “content” footnotes when necessary to avoid interrupting the text with an explanation or other details.

In contrast, the American Psychological Association (APA), the style for the behavioral and social sciences, does not usually allow footnotes. Your particular journal guidelines will provide that information.

A third style guide, the American Medical Association (AMA) , is used mostly with papers in the biological and medical sciences. AMA also discourages the use of footnotes but allows them on the title page. The information on the title page would include the authors’ names and affiliations, corresponding author, members of affiliated groups, etc.

Pros and Cons

Scientific papers do not usually include footnotes. Endnotes may be used sometimes, but sparingly. Other disciplines, such as law and history, still use them regularly . There are pros and cons to each.

The advantages of using footnotes are that they provide the reader with a fast reference and link to additional information. They are easy to insert and will automatically print. The advantage of using endnotes instead of footnotes is that their placement is less distracting. They also provide the reader with an easy reference list in one place.

According to the Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS), endnotes are preferred to footnotes simply because they don’t clutter up a page. CMOS does caution that it can seem disconcerting to a reader to see pages of notes at the end of a chapter or book, so use them sparingly.

Again, another disadvantage to footnotes is that they tend to interrupt the flow of the text. The reader might feel that he must stop and look at the note before moving on, which can be very distracting. Some disadvantages to endnotes are that the reader must turn to the end of the text or chapter to find the additional information. In books with several chapters, this can be tedious, especially if the endnotes are renumbered in each chapter.

As for headnotes, there are really no drawbacks to using them in tables and figures. They offer the reader helpful information that is readily available as they read the data or interpret a figure.

Bottom Line

The style to which you conform when writing your paper will ultimately depend on the journal’s guidelines. Pay careful attention to its protocols for citations and references and whether it will allow footnotes and endnotes. If allowed, be mindful of the disadvantages of both and consider either greatly limiting them or eliminating them altogether.

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Organizing Academic Research Papers: Footnotes or Endnotes?

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• How to Manage Group Projects
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

Endnote Note citing a particular source or making a brief explanatory comment placed at the end of a research paper.

Footnote Note citing a particular source or making a brief explanatory comment placed at the bottom of a page corresponding the item cited.

Structure and Writing Style

Advantages of Using Endnotes

• Endnotes are less distracting to the reader and allows the narrative to flow better.
• Endnotes don't clutter up the page.
• As a separate section of a research paper, endnotes allow the reader to read and contemplate all the notes at once.

Disadvantages of Using Endnotes

• If you want to look at the text of a particular endnote, you have to flip to the end of the research paper to find the information.
• Depending on how they are created [i.e., continuous numbering or numbers that start over for each chapter], you may have to remember the chapter number as well as the endnote number in order to find the correct one.
• Endnotes may carry a negative connotation much like the proverbial "fine print" or hidden disclaimers in advertising. A reader may believe you are trying to hide something by burying it in a hard-to-find endnote.

Advantages of Using Footnotes

• Readers interested in reviewing the footnote can just glance down the page to find what they are looking for.
• A footnote immediately connects the reader to the citation or your specific thought, concept, or idea related to the text.
• Footnotes are automatically included when printing off specific pages.

Disadvantages of Using Footnotes

• Footnotes can clutter up the page and, thus, negatively impact the overall look of the page. If there are multiple columns or charts or tables below only a small segment of text that includes a footnote, then you must decide where the footnotes should appear.
• If the footnotes are lengthy, there's a risk they could dominate the page, although this issue is considered acceptable in legal scholarship.

Things to keep in mind when considering using either endnotes or footnotes in your research paper :

• Footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout a research paper, except for those notes accompanying special material (e.g., figures, tables, charts, etc.). Numbering of footnotes are "superscript"--arabic numbers typed slightly above the line without periods, parentheses or slashes. They can follow all punctuation marks except dashes. In general, to avoid interrupting the continuity of the text, footnote numbers are placed at the end of the sentence, clause or phrase containing the quoted or paraphrased material.
• Depending on the writing style used in your class, endnotes may take the place of a list of resources cited in your paper or they may represent non-bibliographic items, such as comments or observations, followed by a separate list of references to the sources you cited and arranged alphabetically by the author's last name.
• In general, the use of footnotes is now considered outdated and has been replaced by endnotes, which are much easier to place in your paper, even with the advent of word processing programs. However, some disciplines, such as law and history, still predominantly utilize footnotes. Consult with your professor about which form to use and always remember that, whichever system you choose, apply it consistently throughout your paper.

NOTE: Always think critically about the information you place in a footnote or endnote. Ask yourself, is this supplementary or tangential information that would otherwise disrupt the flow of the text or is this essential information that I should integrate into the main text? If you are not sure, it's better to work it into the text. Too many notes implies a disorganized paper.

Cermak, Bonni and Jennifer Troxell. A Guide to Footnotes and Endnotes for NASA History Authors . NASA History Program. History Division; Hale, Ali. Should You Use Footnotes or Endnotes? DailyWritingTips.com ; Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Lunsford, Andrea A. and Robert Connors. The St. Martin's Handbook . New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989; Saller, Carol. “Endnotes or Footnotes? Some Considerations.” The Chronicle of Higher Education 58 (January 6, 2012): http://chronicle.com/blogs/linguafranca/2012/01/06/endnotes-or-footnotes-some-considerations/.

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Footnotes and Bibliographies

Introduction to documentation.

Proper documentation of sources is essential to a strong research essay. Failure to cite your sources properly will result in a reduced or failing grade. Different academic disciplines require different methods of citation. The purpose of this module is to introduce you to the correct formats for notes and bibliographies in history essays.

Notes are references listed at the bottom of a page (footnote) or at the end of a research essay (endnote) that document sources or provide additional information to your reader. Acknowledging the work of other historians is an essential part of the process of writing a research essay. Notes tell your reader where you found your information and enable your reader to explore your ideas in more depth. Failing to acknowledge the words or ideas of others, and leaving the impression that they are your own, is a very serious offence. Scholars work extremely hard to produce books and articles. You must give credit where credit is due. Provide notes specifying your sources for the following:

• Quotations, paraphrases, arguments and unique ideas.
• Statistical information or other specific information that is not commonly known.
• Controversial or contested information.

In addition to listing sources, notes can also serve as a place to put supplementary information that is not appropriate in the main text of your essay or might distract your reader from your main argument. Provide notes for the following:

• Suggestions for further reading.
• Further explanation or background that is not strictly relevant to your argument.
• Definitions of terms and concepts based on scholarly research.
• The original language of a translated quotation.
• Broad historiographical debates that would be overwhelming in the body of the essay. For example, if a date is disputed, you might explain the debate in a note, while in the body of your essay providing only the date you have determined is most valid.

Stylistic Comments

Historians use the chicago style of citation, and not the apa or mla formats..

• Most historians prefer footnotes at the bottom of the page as it is easier to refer to them; however endnotes are acceptable. Endnotes are often used in published books and articles (despite the protests of authors) because they are cheaper and easier to print.
• Each note is assigned an Arabic (not Roman) numeral in the order in which they appear in your essay. Do not reuse the same number, even if you cite the same source twice. Word processing programs will renumber notes automatically if you cut and paste. (Click here for more on the footnoting function in Word.)
• Provide specific and accurate page references. Cite the precise pages you used, eg. 39, 42-43, rather than 39-43. If you reference page sequences, use only two digits in the second number, eg. 387-89. If the book uses Roman numerals, as many book introductions will, cite the page numbers exactly as they appear, eg. xi.
• It is superfluous to use “p” or “pp” to indicate a page number or numbers.
• For poetry and certain other primary sources such as law codes, in addition to page numbers, it is helpful to list line numbers or section numbers to direct the reader to specific passages, eg. lines 356-78 or IV.3.
• Remember that variations may exist within citation methods. It is important to be consistent within each essay.
• For an overview of how notes should look, please review the notes in your course pack articles.

​ Note Format

Bibliographies

Bibliographies provide the reader with a complete list of sources used in a research essay. Occasionally you may be asked to submit an annotated bibliography. This means that each bibliographic entry is accompanied by a description of the source and its relevance to your essay. Few bibliographies are annotated. When compiling your bibliography, please follow these guidelines:

• The bibliography is located on the last page(s) of the essay, following endnotes, if used.
• Always start your bibliography on a new page.
• List bibliographic entries in alphabetical order, according to the author’s surname. When listing multiple works by one author, alphabetize according to title.
• Separate alphabetized entries into the following categories if used: Archival sources, Primary sources and Secondary sources.
• If you have used more than one article or primary source published in a single volume, provide individual bibliographic entries for each article. In the case of a primary source collection in which the documents are very short (for example, a collection of brief letters) and you used a lot of them, it is acceptable to provide one entry for the book as a whole.
• Unless instructed otherwise, list only works cited. Do not list all the works you consulted for your project, but did not cite. Listing all works consulted is considered padding and is frowned upon by scholars.
• Make sure your bibliographic format is consistent within each essay.

Examine some recently published history texts to see how bibliographies should look.

Bibliographic Format

How to Write an Annotated Bibliography

Avoiding Plagiarism

If you have any doubt about whether or not to cite something, cite it. Your instructor will be much happier to discuss the issue of too many footnotes or endnotes than failing to provide any. A first year research essay that is 8-10 double-spaced pages in length or roughly 1500-2000 words will likely have 25-50 footnotes or endnotes. This is not an exact science and these numbers are only a guideline. The consequences of failing to provide sufficient and accurate notes can range from a greatly reduced grade on your essay to institutional expulsion and a permanent record on your transcripts if you have been convicted of the offence on a previous occasion in your academic career.

Remember that your instructors are excellent readers and writers. They will recognize changes in voice or discrepancies in documentation that indicate plagiarism, and have a variety of search engines and plagiarism-detection tools available to the help them identify it. Fake notes will guarantee a zero on your essay and a plagiarism report on file in the Dean’s office. We recommend that you insert notes as you write, rather than leaving them until the end of the writing process. You will be less likely to lose track of your sources by following this best practice.

Academic Honesty

All members of the University community share the responsibility for the academic standards and reputation of the University. When students submit work for academic evaluation and credit, they imply that they are the sole authors of the work. Clear and careful attribution of the words and ideas of others is an essential part of academic scholarship. Academic honesty is a cornerstone of the development and acquisition of knowledge and is a condition of continued membership in the University community.

Academic Dishonesty Academic dishonesty, including plagiarism and cheating, is ultimately destructive of the values of the University. Scholarly integrity is required of all members of the University. Engaging in any form of academic dishonesty or misconduct in order to obtain academic credit or advantage of any kind is an offence under this policy.

A student who has been found to have committed an academic offence will be subject to a penalty or penalties commensurate with the offence. Penalties may range from a reprimand to suspension from the University. Examples include the reduction of a mark on work submitted for evaluation, the requirement to submit another piece of work or to retake a test or examination, and a grade of “0 – Academic Dishonesty” on a student’s transcript. For academic offences involving loss of marks, penalties more serious than a “0” on a piece of work submitted for evaluation will be imposed only by the Dean. The application of penalties imposed by the Dean will be overseen by the Registrar. In deciding on the appropriate sanction to be imposed for an act of academic dishonesty, consideration may be given to the following factors:

• the extent of the dishonesty
• whether the act in question was inadvertent or deliberate
• the importance of the work in question as a component of the course or program
• whether the student has been found to have committed any previous act of academic dishonesty
• whether the act in question was an isolated incident or part of repeated acts of academic dishonesty
• any other relevant circumstances

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What Are Endnotes? | Guide with Examples

Published on March 29, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on June 7, 2022.

Endnotes are notes that appear at the end of your text in a piece of academic writing. They’re indicated in the text with numbers (or occasionally other symbols). Endnotes are used:

• For citations in certain styles
• To add extra information that doesn’t fit smoothly into the main text

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Table of contents

Endnotes vs. footnotes, how to use endnotes, endnotes in chicago style, endnotes in apa style, endnotes in mla style, how to insert endnotes in word, frequently asked questions about footnotes and endnotes.

Endnotes are sometimes confused with footnotes . Footnotes are also used to provide citations and/or supplementary information, but they appear at the bottom of the relevant page instead of all together at the end.

• Clutter your writing less than footnotes, since they’re all grouped together instead of spread throughout the text
• Are less convenient, since the reader has to flip to the back to read the notes
• Are convenient, since the reader finds the additional information on the same page as the relevant part of the text
• Can make your text appear messy, especially if there are a lot of them

You should usually choose either footnotes or endnotes and use them consistently. Your instructor may tell you which style of note to use.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Endnote numbers appear at the end of the clause or sentence the endnote relates to. The number appears after any punctuation, unless the clause ends with an em dash, in which case it appears before it. There’s no space added after the number.

The general consensus now—though there are dissenting voices 1 —is that this experiment was simply too methodologically flawed to produce valid results. 2

Endnotes are numbered consecutively in the order they appear in your text. Each note has a unique number; don’t repeat the same number even if you cite the same source more than once.

In Chicago notes and bibliography style , you use endnotes (or footnotes) for citations. Either kind of note can also be used to add extra information: further examples, commentary on the sources you cite, or more detailed discussion of ideas you mention in the text.

Place your Chicago endnotes at the end of the relevant clause or sentence. A citation endnote provides full information about a source the first time you cite it, and shortened information for any further citations of that source.

                    1. Hanna Pickard, “What Is Personality Disorder?” Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology 18, no. 3 (September 2011): 182. https://doi.org/10.1353/ppp.2011.0040.

          2. Pickard, “What Is Personality Disorder?” 182.

You should still include a full list of your sources in a bibliography after the endnotes, unless you’re writing a very short paper and have been told you don’t need to.

The endnotes page appears just before the bibliography and starts with the title “Notes” written in bold and centered. The notes themselves are formatted as follows:

• Leave a blank line between endnotes, and single-space the notes themselves.
• Indent the start of each endnote.
• Write the note numbers in normal text, not superscript, followed by a period and then a space.

Either endnotes or footnotes may be used in APA Style to provide additional information. They’re not used for citation; for that you’ll use APA in-text citations instead.

APA endnotes are used to provide copyright attributions where necessary. They can also be used, for example, to elaborate on ideas in the text or provide further examples. Do this sparingly, however; APA cautions against adding unnecessary details.

1 Copyright 2022 by Scribbr. Reprinted with permission.

        2 Admittedly, the issue is not as straightforward as this brief summary suggests. See Prakash (2019) for a more in-depth consideration of …

Endnotes appear on a separate page after the reference list , with the heading “Footnotes” (confusingly, APA doesn’t use the term “endnotes”) in bold and centered at the top.

The notes are written as double-spaced indented paragraphs. Start each note with its number, in superscript and followed by a space.

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MLA in-text citations appear in parentheses in the text, but you can use endnotes to avoid cluttering the text if you need a lot of citations in one place.

MLA endnotes may also be used to provide additional information—any necessary clarifications, further examples, or expansions of ideas covered briefly in the text.

      1 See James 35; Lanning 15–25; and Johnson 77.

       2 Other nations, including Italy and France, were undergoing similar political convulsions during the same period.

List your endnotes on a separate page before the Works Cited list, and title them either “Notes” or “Endnotes.” Indent the first line of each endnote, and start the note with the number in superscript followed by a space. Endnotes should be double-spaced.

It’s straightforward to insert endnotes automatically in many word processors, including Microsoft Word. Just follow these steps:

• Click on the point in the text where you want the endnote number to appear.
• Open the “References” tab at the top, and click on “Insert Endnote.”
• Type something in the endnote that appears at the end of your document.

But if you’re following one of the styles covered above, do adjust the formatting to match their requirements and add a heading for the endnotes page.

Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page they refer to. This is convenient for the reader but may cause your text to look cluttered if there are a lot of footnotes.

Endnotes appear all together at the end of the whole text. This may be less convenient for the reader but reduces clutter.

Both footnotes and endnotes are used in the same way: to cite sources or add extra information. You should usually choose one or the other to use in your text, not both.

To insert endnotes in Microsoft Word, follow the steps below:

• Click on the spot in the text where you want the endnote to show up.
• In the “References” tab at the top, select “Insert Endnote.”
• Type whatever text you want into the endnote.

If you need to change the type of notes used in a Word document from footnotes to endnotes , or the other way around, follow these steps:

• Open the “References” tab, and click the arrow in the bottom-right corner of the “Footnotes” section.
• In the pop-up window, click on “Convert…”
• Choose the option you need, and click “OK.”

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Caulfield, J. (2022, June 07). What Are Endnotes? | Guide with Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved September 3, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/endnotes/

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