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• v.29(8); 2018 Apr 15

Is an MD/PhD program right for me? Advice on becoming a physician–scientist

We are living in a golden age of biomedical research in which it is increasingly feasible to translate fundamental discoveries into new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches to human illnesses. Inherited diseases are being cured with gene therapy. Cancer cells are being eliminated with less toxic small molecule inhibitors and reengineered T-cells. Direct connections are being made between the central nervous system and prosthetic devices. These efforts are being led by scientists and engineers, some of whom are also physicians. This article is intended to help anyone considering a career as a physician–scientist, but unsure about how best to begin. It is also intended for faculty, staff, and parents who are on the front lines of advising talented students about the options that they have for their future. With this in mind, I have tried to answer common questions about MD/PhD programs, but I have also included information about other paths to becoming a physician who does research.

INTRODUCTION

Because this is a perspectives piece, I will begin it with a confession: I have been a physician–scientist for more than 30 years and I like what I do. I am also a graduate of one of the earliest MD/PhD programs and have been director of the University of Pennsylvania’s MD/PhD program for 20 years. Being a physician who is also a scientist already makes me atypical. According to the American Medical Association, only 14,000 U.S. physicians (out of nearly 1 million) consider research to be their major job, and a search of National Institutes of Health (NIH) databases in 2012 turned up only 8200 physicians who were principal investigators on NIH research grants ( Ginsburg et al. , 2014 ). To put that number in context, there were 28,000 total investigators with NIH grants in 2012. In other words, most NIH principal investigators are PhD scientists, not physician–scientists (MD or MD/PhD).

My primary day (and sometimes night and weekend) job as a card-carrying physician–scientist is overseeing an NIH-funded research team. My clinical responsibilities include taking care of patients with the kinds of bleeding and blood clotting disorders that we study in the lab. Some of these patients have medical problems that are common in the United States. Some of them are true “zebras,” the kinds of patients who get referred to a well-respected academic medical center because physicians are unsure how best to proceed or lack the resources to manage the patient’s problem. I also teach medical students and graduate students, and I direct a very large MD/PhD program. In my spare time, I talk to lots of undergraduates and recent college graduates who are thinking about becoming physician–scientists and wondering whether they should be applying to MD/PhD programs. I meet them at Penn, but also on visits to other colleges and universities. This article is a distillation of some answers to questions that I am commonly asked. If you are an undergraduate trying to decide whether to go to medical school, graduate school, or both, this article may help you. Whatever you decide, I wish you success.

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF MD/PhD TRAINING?

MD/PhD programs were established in the 1950s to combine training in medicine and research. They were specifically designed for men and women who wanted to become research physicians, also known as physician–investigators or physician–scientists. Most of the graduates of MD/PhD programs in the 60-plus years since then have become faculty members at medical schools and universities, investigators at research institutes such as the NIH, or leaders in in the pharmaceutical and biotech industries ( Brass et al. , 2010 ). Regardless of where they eventually end up, MD/PhD trainees are being prepared for careers in which they will spend most of their time doing research or translating that research into new therapeutic and diagnostic approaches. It is a busy, challenging, and hugely rewarding career. A study of what has happened to MD/PhD program graduates from 24 schools appeared in Academic Medicine in 2010 and is worth reading not only for the data set, but also for the discussion of what the data mean ( Brass et al. , 2010 ). An even larger outcomes study that includes data on over 10,000 MD/PhD program graduates is scheduled for publication as a AAMC report in April 2018 ( Akabas et al. , 2018 ).

HOW CAN ONE PERSON DO TWO JOBS?

When I was an undergraduate and trying to decide what to do with my life, my mentors told me that I could become a doctor or a scientist, but that trying to combine two busy professions was futile. Many years later, I know that many current undergraduates are being told the same thing. However well-meant, that advice misses the point. The goal of MD/PhD program training is not to prepare you for two unrelated full time jobs. Instead, you should think of physician–scientists as chimeras—blends of a physician and a scientist with the two parts fitting closely together. A more relevant question is: if you are going to become a physician–scientist, do you have to go through an MD/PhD program? I will try to answer that one a bit later in this article. First, I’ll provide some definitions.

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AN MD/PhD PROGRAM, A COMBINED DEGREE PROGRAM, AND AN MSTP PROGRAM? A BIT OF HISTORY AND A WORD ABOUT FUNDING

None. Programs designed to train physician–scientists go by all of these names. For the most part, the terms are interchangeable, although at some schools “combined degree” programs can include MD/JD and MD/masters programs as well—also VMD/PhD programs, which train veterinary physician–scientists. A list of MD/PhD programs can be found at http://www.aamc.org/students/research/mdphd/applying_MD/PhD/61570/mdphd_programs.html . The NIH uses the term MSTP (short for “medical scientist training program”) to refer to programs at schools that have been competitively awarded special training funds to help support MD/PhD candidates. There are currently 46 MD/PhD programs that receive support from the National Institute of General Medical Studies. A list can be found at http://www.nigms.nih.gov/Training/InstPredoc/PredocOverview-MSTP.htm .

When they first started, there were only a handful of MD/PhD programs. I can clearly remember reading a small booklet about applying to medical school that had a single page at the back about MD/PhD programs. Over time, the number of programs has grown. Now there are ∼90 active MD/PhD programs that admit anywhere from a few students per year to 25 or more. The average size of an MD/PhD program in 2017 was ∼90 students in all stages of training. Compared with the many thousands who apply to medical school in each year, only 1900 (∼3%) apply to MD/PhD programs. About one-third of the applicants are accepted, which is similar to the acceptance rate for medical school. 1 When I began medical school, there were very few MD/PhD trainees—I was one of two in my entering class. That has changed considerably. There are currently ∼5500 men and women in training in MD/PhD programs.

Most MD/PhD programs provide tuition waivers for both medical school and graduate school plus a stipend to help cover living expenses. Such fellowships are exceedingly valuable for trainees and very expensive for medical schools and the NIH, so admissions committees work hard to pick the right students for their programs. Despite the high training costs, when I visit other MD/PhD programs to conduct reviews, it is not uncommon to hear deans refer to their MD/PhD program as “the jewel in the crown.” One can easily argue that the existence of MD/PhD programs is evidence of the high value that our society places on physician–scientists.

ARE MD/PhD PROGRAMS LIMITED TO THOSE INTERESTED IN LABORATORY RESEARCH?

The answer varies from school to school. Not all schools offer PhD programs in all disciplines. The majority of MD/PhD students receive their PhD in biomedical laboratory disciplines such as cell biology, biochemistry, genetics, immunology, pharmacology, neuroscience, and biomedical engineering. The names of departments and graduate programs vary from school to school. At some schools, MD/PhD trainees do their graduate work outside of the laboratory disciplines, in fields such as economics, epidemiology, health care economics, sociology, medical anthropology, or the history of science. This is not an exhaustive list, and you should check before you apply to see what is actually offered at any particular school.

Although there is no fully up-to-date and reliable list of which MD/PhD programs offer training in which graduate disciplines, a place to start is at the Website of the AAMC MD/PhD section (which is a good source for other types of information as well). 2

ARE THERE OTHER WAYS TO BECOME A PHYSICIAN–SCIENTIST?

Yes. Definitely. MD/PhD programs are a great choice for people who decide early that that they want to be physician–scientists and have built the necessary track record of academic success and research experience before they apply. Not everyone does this, however, either because he or she did not learn about the option early enough, he or she did not make a decision in time, or he or she does not have an academic and research experience record that supports an application. Not finding out early enough turns out to be a common problem. In my experience, college prehealth advisors know much less about MD/PhD training than MD training—not surprisingly, since only 3% of medical school applicants in the United States every year apply for MD/PhD training. As a result, some people choose (or are obliged) to do MD/PhD training in series, rather than parallel—finishing one degree and then starting the other. The disadvantages of this approach include taking longer to finish training and the likely need to cover the cost of medical school on your own.

I am frequently asked about the strategy of starting medical school and then applying to graduate school as a medical student. Some schools will consider you for transfer into their MD/PhD programs after you have completed a year or two of medical school or graduate school at the same university. Although it is very rare that an MD/PhD program will consider accepting a medical or graduate student from a different school, it does occasionally happen when faculty move from one institution to another and want to bring their students with them. The rules and requirements vary from school to school.

Other programs worth checking out include the NIH MD/PhD program that provides support for the PhD phase at the NIH campus or in Oxford/Cambridge, with the MD training taking place at one of the participating MSTP-designated programs. Note that not all of the MSTP programs have chosen to participate, so if you have your heart set on a specific medical school, you should be sure to ask. 3

Another option is to complete medical school and residency training before doing an extended period of supervised research. A number of Nobel Prize–winning physician–scientists did just that. However, with the increase in the number of MD/PhD training programs nationwide, most people who make the decision to become physician–­scientists while still in college should think hard about doing both degrees together in an integrated MD/PhD program that combines graduate school and medical school into a joint program that currently takes 8 years on average to complete ( Akabas et al. , 2018 ).

DO I REALLY NEED A PhD TO DO RESEARCH? CAN I SAVE TIME BY SKIPPING IT?

The answer to the first of these questions is “Clearly not.” However, while medical school will put you firmly on the path to becoming an accomplished clinician, it does not provide training in how to do research. At some point you will benefit from that additional piece of your education if you intend to become a physician–scientist.

As noted above, in years past it was not uncommon to learn how to do research by doing an extended postdoctoral fellowship after (or instead of) a clinical residency. I am often asked whether it is possible to save time on the path to becoming a physician–scientist by skipping graduate school and just going to medical school. The available data suggest that the answer to this one is “No.” Physician–scientists get their first jobs in academia and their first independent NIH grants at approximately the same age regardless of whether they completed an MD/PhD program or went solely to medical school and then did a more extended postdoc ( Ginsburg et al. , 2014 ). As a result, I normally tell undergraduates that if they are ready to make the commitment before starting medical school, MD/PhD programs offer many advantages, including integrated training, mentored research training, and medical school tuition waivers. On the other hand, if you are sure you want to be a doctor, but less sure about being a scientist, then my advice is to go to medical school and figure out the rest of what you need when you know more about the opportunities that being a physician provides.

HOW DOES MD/PhD TRAINING WORK AND HOW LONG DOES IT TAKE?

The answer varies from school to school, but historically students begin with 2 years of medical school, switch to graduate school in the third year of the program, and then return to finish medical school after completing (and defending) a thesis research project. When I was an MD/PhD student in the 1970s, there was little, if any, communication between the medical and graduate phases of the program. That has changed considerably. Now most programs emphasize integration of the MD and PhD parts of the training, with graduate school courses during years 1 and 2 and clinical experiences during graduate school. Some programs allow completion of 3–12 months of clinical training before the start of full-time graduate training. Be sure to ask how things are organized at schools that you are considering. In programs leading to a PhD in laboratory science, MD/PhD trainees usually spend the summer between the first and second years of medical school working in the laboratory of the faculty member they are considering as a potential thesis advisor. Some programs also ask students to do one of these “lab rotations” in the summer before starting medical school classes as well. Depending on the number of clinical months completed before starting the thesis research, students returning to medical school will need 1–2 years to finish their training and meet the requirements for medical licensure. The stated goal is to complete an MD/PhD program in 7 or 8 years. However, numbers from across the country show that some students finish in 6 years, while others take 10 years (or more). The average currently is 8 years ( Akabas et al. , 2018 ). Note that medical education in the United States continues to evolve. One trend is away from the classic two years of preclinical education followed by 2 years of clinical education. The earlier start in clinical training made possible by shortening preclinical time enables some MD/PhD programs to offer full-time clinical experiences before the start of graduate school. However, some schools are choosing not to do this. The only way to find out what is being done is to ask, if it is not evident from the program’s Website.

HOW LONG DOES IT TAKE TO COMPLETE TRAINING AFTER GRADUATING FROM AN MD/PhD PROGRAM?

Corny as this may sound, the process is never really finished. Your education will continue throughout your career. A more pragmatic answer is that training will extend beyond medical school and graduate school as you complete your post graduate education. Here are some typical numbers: MD/PhD program, 8 years. Residency, 3–6 years. Postdoctoral fellowship, 3–6 years. For most people the term “postdoctoral fellowship” includes another year or two of clinical training, followed by a return to research for 2 or more years ( Figure 1 ). For example, I completed an MD/PhD program in 6 years, followed by a residency in internal medicine (3 years) and a fellowship in clinical hemato­logy and oncology that was combined with postdoctoral training back in a lab (3 years). After that I became an assistant professor and started my own lab. That timing was fairly typical when I did it. Now it would be considered fast. On the other hand, my job description when I finished included running a research team, looking after postdocs and graduate students, and taking care of sick people with complicated medical problems, so maybe all of that training time was necessary.

Paths to becoming a physician who is also a scientist. Integrated MD/PhD training programs that combine research and medical training are not the only path to becoming a physician–scientist. Alternatives begin with doing a research year in medical school (MD+ in the figure) or just doing the standard four-year medical school education. These save time at the start, but usually require a longer period of postgraduate clinical and research training to reach the point where a job as a physician–scientist in academia becomes feasible. As a result, physician–scientists often arrive at the “get a job” point at about the same age whether they began as medical students, MD+ students, or MD/PhD students, although usually with greater student debt if they have not been in an MD/PhD program. See the text for details.

WHAT HAPPENS TO THE GRADUATES OF MD/PhD PROGRAMS?

Short-term, nearly all do additional clinical training. Those who do not are usually headed toward careers at research institutes or outside clinical medicine entirely. Those who do apply for residencies often find that their MD/PhD training makes them particularly appealing to residency programs at top institutions. Long-term, most program graduates end up with careers in which they combine patient care and research. The research may be lab-based, translational, or clinical. Most (75–80%) end up at academic medical centers, at research institutions such as the NIH, or in the pharmaceutical/biotech industry ( Figure 2 ; Brass et al. , 2010 ; Akabas et al. , 2018 ). A much higher percentage of MD/PhD program graduates have ended up in academia than of medical school graduates in general ( Brass et al. , 2010 ). Those who build research careers and apply for NIH research grants find that having the PhD in addition to the MD improves their chances of obtaining funding ( Ginsburg et al. , 2014 ).

Where are they working? Data from 2202 MD/PhD program alumni who have completed all phases of postgraduate clinical and research training. Adapted from Brass et al. (2010) . Industry includes the biotech and pharmaceutical industries. Pvt Practice refers to full-time clinical practice outside of an academic medical center.

HOW DO I APPLY?

The process of application varies from school to school. Some schools have an MD/PhD-focused committee that will screen your application and coordinate the interview and admission process. Other schools consider MD/PhD applicants only after a decision has been made about MD admissions. Finally, some schools consider students for the MD/PhD program only after they have completed a year or more of medical school. Schools that subscribe to AMCAS will ask you to indicate your interest in an MD/PhD program and then to provide additional information as part of a secondary application.

WHEN DO I APPLY?

Most people apply after finishing their junior year in college, but a growing number of applicants finish college and work for a year or more before applying. Some people use the time after college to take courses needed for medical school admission or to gain more full-time laboratory research experience. Some people simply were not ready to make decisions about their future careers and postponed choosing beyond the finish of college. It is a mistake to assume that MD/PhD programs are interested only in applicants who have worked in a lab for a year or more after college. That is clearly not the case, and some of us who direct MD/PhD programs are concerned about the growing percentage of applicants who have waited to apply after they graduate in the mistaken impression that it will improve their resumes. My advice is that for a training path that lasts as long as this one does, it is best to get started as soon as possible.

WHAT DO ADMISSIONS COMMITTEES LOOK FOR?

The answer clearly varies from school to school, but some basic principles apply. In general, admissions committees will look for evidence of academic success, extended research experience, letters of recommendation from people who know you well, and your plans for the future.

• Evidence of academic success. This includes your GPA and MCAT scores, but is not limited to them. Admission committees use a holistic approach and will undoubtedly consider where you went to college and what types of courses you took. They will not necessarily be dismayed if you got off to a slow start, as long as you did well later. They will place the greatest emphasis on courses that are relevant to your chosen area of graduate school training. I have not encountered a program director who seriously believed that the MCAT tests your ability to be a physician–scientist. Nonetheless programs use MCAT scores in a variety of ways, including seeing how you compare with the national pool of applicants and predicting how you will do on the numerous standardized tests that all of us have to take in medical school and beyond.
• Extensive research experience. If you plan to get a PhD in one of the laboratory sciences, then prior laboratory experience counts heavily, particularly if you spent a year or more in the same laboratory. Summer laboratory experience can be helpful because they are usually opportunities to do research full time, but summers are short. Whenever possible, you should try to do research during the academic year, or at least spend multiple summers in the same lab. If you are planning a PhD outside of the laboratory sciences, seek equivalent experiences. The idea is to be sure you like the experience and to create a track record upon which your past performance can be judged and your future success predicted.
• Letters of recommendation. The most important letter(s) are from the faculty members or other senior investigators with whom you worked. The letters should ideally comment on your talents, skills, and potential for success as an independent investigator. If you are working with a senior faculty member, it is very helpful if he or she can compare you with other students with whom he or she has worked. Note that such a letter is not necessarily the most appropriate for an MD-only application. MD/PhD program admissions committees are usually most interested in your talent and ability as a physician–scientist, although they will definitely also consider whether you are likely to become a successful and caring physician. Fortunately, medical schools allow you to submit more than one letter of recommendation.
• Your plans for the future. Because training to be a physician–­investigator is so costly in terms of your time and the school’s resources, your career goals should be compatible with MD/PhD training. Becoming a full-time practitioner is a laudable goal, but does not require a PhD in addition to an MD. Your goal as a trained physician–investigator should be to spend at least 75% of your time on research. You do not need to know the specific problem you want to work on at this point (many do not, and it is likely to change), or with whom you would like to train, but your commitment to becoming an investigator should be clearly communicated in your essays and interviews, and you should have given thought to what will be required.

HOW DO I DECIDE WHERE TO APPLY?

Some applicants have decided that they want to work in a particular field or with a particular faculty member. For them, choosing where to apply is defined by where that faculty member works or where the field is best represented. Most applicants have only a general idea of what they might want to work on in the future and know that their interests are likely to evolve as they are exposed to new things. For them, choice will be defined by issues such as the reputation of the school (hopefully not based solely on U.S. News and World Report rankings!), the success of the graduates of the program (be sure to ask!), and geography. Schools vary in the difficulty of gaining admission. The directors and nonfaculty administrators of MD/PhD programs nationwide are a large pool of resources that you can tap. Most of us get e-mail from future applicants all the time. Take advantage of our willingness to talk with you. Ask questions about the things that are important to you.

FINAL THOUGHTS

I began this perspective with the confession that I am a physician–scientist and I like what I do. It is not unusual these days to encounter articles and opinion pieces that lament the difficulty of becoming and remaining a physician–scientist. I will not cite them here—you can find them on your own. Fortunately, our society is still willing to make a large investment in biomedical research through the NIH and through numerous foundations. If you want to become a physician who discovers the new stuff, there are jobs waiting to be filled. However, you will need good training and great mentorship as you learn the skills needed to be a physician and a research team leader. Good luck with your decision.

Acknowledgments

My thanks to my colleagues who direct MD/PhD programs, the NIH for supporting physician–scientist training (including my own), and the hundreds of MD/PhD candidates and alumni who have taught me so much over the past 20 years.

Abbreviations used:

DOI: 10.1091/mbc.E17-12-0721

1 www.aamc.org/data/facts/enrollmentgraduate/ .

2 www.aamc.org/students/research/mdphd/ .

3 http://mdphd.gpp.nih.gov .

• Akabas MH, Tartakovsky I, Brass LF. (2018). The National MD–PhD Program Outcomes Study. American Association of Medical Colleges Reports.
• Brass LF, Akabas MH, Burnley LD, Engman DM, Wiley CA, Andersen OS. (2010). Are MD–PhD programs meeting their goals? An analysis of career choices made by graduates of 24 MD–PhD programs . Acad Med , 692–701. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ginsburg D, Shurin SB, Mills S. (2014). NIH Physician–Scientist Workforce (PSW) Working Group Report. [ Google Scholar ]

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• Allegra R. Gordon, ScD MPH
• Anita Misra-Hebert, MD MPH FACP
• Arden M. Morris, MD, MPH
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• Andrew Cohen, MD, PhD
• Angela Chen, PhD, PMHNP-BC, RN
• Christopher Salas-Wright, PhD, MSW
• Eliza Park MD, MS
• Jaime M. Hughes, PhD, MPH, MSW
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• Ariel Williamson PhD, DBSM
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• Christopher Woodrell MD
• Hung-Jui (Ray) Tan, MD, MSHPM
• Jasmine Abrams, PhD
• Jose Alejandro Rauh-Hain, MD
• Karen Flórez, DrPH, MPH
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About the PhD in Clinical Investigation Program

The program is targeted toward internal physician postdoctoral fellows in clinical departments of the School of Medicine. It involves one year of full-time academic classroom work, followed by at least two years of mentored training in clinical research. The combination of a year of instruction and a year of clinicals allows students the scientific grounding for subsequent original research. This research effort is jointly mentored by faculty from the program and a mentor from the student’s SOM department. After fulfilling all requirements, a Doctor of Philosophy degree in Clinical Investigation is awarded by the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health.

Curriculum for the PhD in Clinical Investigation

Browse an overview of this program's requirements in the JHU  Academic Catalogue  and explore all course offerings in the Bloomberg School  Course Directory .

Prerequisites for the PhD Degree

• Satisfactory completion of 90 credit hours of course work, including one year of full-time in-residency course work
• Five additional courses to be taken in the second or third years
• Continuous registration for the Research Forum and registration for Thesis Research each term
• Completion of a Comprehensive Exam at the end of the didactic year
• Satisfaction of all university requirements for the PhD, including completion of a Preliminary Oral Examination, Thesis Preparation, and Thesis Defense

Admissions Requirements

For general admissions requirements, please visit the How to Apply page. For our PhD specific application requirements, please see our How to Apply page.

This specific program also requires:

Prior Graduate Degree

Advanced medical degree: e.g., MD, MBBS, PhD

Prior Work Experience

Work with human subjects in clinical investigation

Standardized Test Scores

Standardized test scores  are required  for this program. This program accepts the following standardized test scores: USMLE and GRE or MCAT.  Applications will be reviewed holistically based on all application components.

GTPCI is one of 60 national recipients of an NIH-sponsored CTSA KL2 Award to support institutional career development programs for physicians and dentists, encouraging them to become independent, patient-oriented clinical investigators. This Multi- disciplinary Clinical Research Career Development Program funds clinical research training for a broad group of physicians, dentists, and other scientists who have a doctorate in a health-related field, including pharmacy, nursing, epidemiology, and behavioral sciences. The Johns Hopkins KL2 program will provide career development support for junior faculty physicians or dentists from within Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions.

Information regarding the cost of tuition and fees can be found on the Bloomberg School's Tuition and Fees page.

Need-Based Relocation Grants Students who  are admitted to PhD programs at JHU  starting in Fall 2023 or beyond can apply to receive a $1500 need-based grant to offset the costs of relocating to be able to attend JHU.   These grants provide funding to a portion of incoming students who, without this money, may otherwise not be able to afford to relocate to JHU for their PhD program. This is not a merit-based grant. Applications will be evaluated solely based on financial need.  View more information about the need-based relocation grants for PhD students .

Questions about the program? We're happy to help.

Director Khalil Ghanem, MD, PhD

Academic Program Manager Cristina A. DeNardo, MEd 410-502-9734 [email protected]

MD-PhD Program

Integrate Science and Medicine.

Train for a career as a translational scientist..

We help you integrate your clinical and basic-science talents early, establishing a firm foundation for your career as a physician-scientist. You'll learn interdisciplinary skills and acquire the comprehensive perspective translational research demands.

Experience Immersive Clinical Training

Your intensive training will prepare you to join teams that are advancing health care nationally and internationally.

Explore Broad Research Possibilities

Diverse research opportunities form the heart of our program. Whether your calling is in the basic sciences, public health, engineering, or cancer sciences, we're sure you'll find your fit here.

Connect Medicine to Research

You will train in both tracks concurrently throughout your MD-PhD program, cross-applying your insights into research and patient care.

Clayton Brady MD-PhD student

Elliot Kramer MD-PhD student

How It Works

Our program's structured curriculum and one-on-one advising give you the resources to succeed on your path to becoming a clinical translational scientist with an average program duration of seven to eight years.

First Two Years: MS 1 & 2

• Clinical and didactic coursework alongside medical students
• Laboratory Rotations
• Bi-weekly MD-PhD Seminar

PhD Training: Avg 3-5 years

• Advanced basic science coursework
• PhD thesis research
• Longitudinal clinical mentoring program

Final Two Years: MS 3 & 4

• Clinical rotations and electives
• Prepare for Residency or Post-Doc

By the Numbers

• Average Years to Completion: 7.8 
• Current Students in Program: 30
• Current F30 Awards: 8
• Students from Out of State: 14

Current numbers as of Fall 2022.

Residency Placements

• Internal Medicine: 11
• Neurology: 3
• Psychiatry: 3
• Radiology: 3

Classes of 2014-2021

PhD Program Options

Jacobs school of medicine and biomedical sciences.

• Biochemistry
• Biomedical Informatics
• Genetics, Genomics & Bioinformatics
• Microbiology & Immunology
• Neuroscience
• Oral Biology
• Pathology & Anatomical Sciences
• Pharmacology & Toxicology
• Physiology & Biophysics
• Structural Biology

School of Public Health and Health Professions

• Epidemiology
• Nutrition & Exercise Science

School of Engineering and Applied Sciences

• Biomedical Engineering
• Chemical & Biological Engineering
• Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering

Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center

• Cancer Prevention
• Cancer Genetics, Genomics, and Development
• Tumor Immunology
• Cell Stress and Biophysical Oncology
• Experimental Therapeutics

Research Areas

We’re sure you’ll discover your next home with us.

MD-PhD News

• 9/3/24 Orientation Acclimates New Biomedical Graduate Students
• 7/23/24 Class of 2028 Welcomed Through White Coat Ceremony
• 6/3/24 PhD White Coat Ceremony Honors Student Advancement
• 5/29/24 UB Awards 320 Biomedical Science Degrees; 35 Earn PhDs

Yuhao (Tom) Shi MD-PhD student

Ready to Start your journey?

Explore Research Areas

MSTP MD-PhD Program

MSTP 2024 Entering Class

Message from the Directors

Welcome to the Stanford MSTP MD-PhD program where you will find a rich environment and unparalleled opportunities for developing a career dedicated to biomedical research.

You may already be familiar with Stanford's tradition and reputation for academic excellence, scientific innovation, and stunning environment; in addition, there are some very special aspects to the program. Stanford is a true University, with Schools of Medicine, Engineering, and Humanities & Sciences located on a single campus that facilitates and encourages interaction between scientists from different disciplines. It was the thesis work of a former MSTP student that helped provide the impetus for the development of the Bio-X program and the Clark Center, which bridges the life, physical, and mathematical sciences to address current challenges in medicine and biology with new ways of thinking.

Medical school at Stanford—for MD-PhD and non-MD-PhD students alike—is also unique. With major clinical training centers in tertiary care, county hospital, and HMO settings, our students learn about different types of patient care and how best to care for their patients. Most Stanford students spend an extra year pursuing interests in laboratory research, public health, or community service; as a dual degree student you will be surrounded by colleagues whose interests go beyond a traditional curriculum.

Finally, Stanford has a well-deserved reputation for interaction, cooperation, and collegiality that extends across educational levels (staff and faculty), training programs (departmental and interdisciplinary), and Schools (medicine and computer science). On a bike ride through campus, or a walk to the "Dish," you will encounter fellow students, Deans, and Nobel laureates, all of whom hold in common a love for an intellectual environment that fosters creativity, critical thinking, and discussion.

Stanford MD-PhD students join a community of scientists dedicated to biomedical research; the group is global but the degrees of separation are few. Welcome to that community!

MSTP Directors

Catherine Blish, MD, PhD

Co-Director, MSTP MD-PhD Professor of Medicine - Infectious Disease

Katrin Chua, MD, PhD

Co-Director, MSTP MD-PhD Professor of Medicine - Endocrinology, Gerontology and Metabolism

Dean Felsher, MD, PhD

Associate Director for Admissions, MSTP MD-PhD Professor of Medicine - Oncology, and Pathology

Vivianne Tawfik, MD, PhD

Associate Director, MSTP MD-PhD Associate Professor of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine

Taia Wang, MD, PhD

Associate Director, MSTP MD-PhD Associate Professor of Medicine and of Microbiology and Immunology

Ellen Yeh, MD, PhD

Associate Director, MSTP MD-PhD Associate Professor of Pathology and of Microbiology and Immunology

Carolyn Bertozzi wins 2022 Nobel Prize in chemistry. 

Stanford chemist Carolyn Bertozzi, PhD, was awarded the Nobel Prize for her pioneering work establishing the field of bioorthogonal chemistry, which allows researchers to study biomolecules and their interactions in living organisms without disrupting natural biological functions.

Dean Felsher , Associate Director of MSTP, is a recipient of the  2020 NCI Outstanding Investigator Award .  NCI Outstanding Investigator Award Recipients was originally published by the National Cancer Institute.

Stanford Med News

Stanford med twitter feed.

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Preparing physician-scientists to translate scientific discoveries into medical solutions that improve patient care

Medical scientist training program, mayo clinic m.d.-ph.d. program.

The Mayo Clinic M.D.-Ph.D. Program educates students to meet the demands of a career as a physician-scientist. By combining M.D. and Ph.D. training, we prepare our graduates to be leaders in both clinical medicine and in scientific research to significantly impact the future of medicine and science. Our graduates go on to be highly successful in their respective fields of clinical medicine, research, medical education, and leadership.

Program highlights

• Our flexible  curriculum  prepares students with a sound foundation in medical training to fully understand all levels of their scientific research and how it contributes to patient care and human health. Above all, our curriculum gives students the flexibility to become the physician-scientists they want to be. 
• Students are fully supported through a unique funding model,   guaranteed internal fellowship for up to eight years .
• Modern research requires access to cutting-edge technology and research support services . Mayo Clinic provides students access to an unbelievable array of research and clinical resources .

Our program benefits from the exceptional clinical training of  Mayo Clinic Alix School of Medicine and the extraordinary research education and resources of  Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences . Mayo Clinic is well-known for its tradition of integrating patient care, research, and education. These connections are reflected throughout our curriculum, student experiences, opportunities, and graduate outcomes.

Committed to diversity, equity, and inclusion

The Mayo Clinic M.D.-Ph.D. Program is committed to a diverse, equitable, and inclusive learning environment to ensure trainee success. Our mission supports the recruitment, retention, and development of diverse physician-scientist leaders. We strive to build a community of belonging that allows each individual to bring their full, authentic self in a safe environment where we can thrive together to meet the three-shield mission of patient care, research, and education.

Training locations

Students have the ability to enroll at the Minnesota campus or the Arizona campus, while taking advantage of opportunities on the Florida campus. This allows for a truly unique and customized educational experience, including:

• Videoconferenced classes and seminars
• Active student groups
• Teaching assistants available on-site
• Multidisciplinary journal clubs and seminars
• Opportunities for collaboration and team science
• Clinical experiences throughout the Ph.D. phase

Medical Scientist Training Program (MSTP) in Rochester, Minnesota

The Mayo Clinic M.D.-Ph.D. Program in Rochester, Minnesota, has been educating physician-scientists since 1986. Every year, up to nine students are admitted in Minnesota.

M.D.-Ph.D. Program in Phoenix/Scottsdale, Arizona

The incoming class of 2021 was the first class to enroll in the M.D.-Ph.D. Program on the Arizona campus. Every year, two students are admitted in Arizona.

Medical Scientist Training Program: At-a-glance

medical school in the nation for research (U.S. News & World Report)

Meet the students

average time to degree

Integrated experiences

Our vision is to fully integrate the medical school and graduate school experiences, thereby creating synergy in the activities leading to both degrees.

Graduate outcomes

Campus and community, take your next step.

Why Mayo Clinic?

How to apply

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Applications are accepted June 1-Oct. 1 each year.

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(MD-) PhD Clinical Research

The doctoral programme Clinical Research at the Medical Faculty of the University of Basel is a Swiss-wide unique education programme for graduates in human medicine or in life sciences.

PhD Clinical Research

Candidates with a Master's degree in human medicine or life sciences (sports sciences, biochemistry, biology, biostatistics, biotechnology, biochemistry, epidemiology, nursing sciences, pharmaceutical sciences, psychology, public health, insurance medicine, veterinary medicine, dentistry) can be admitted to the programme PhD Clinical Research . It leads to the acquisition of the title Dr. sc. med. Clinical Research .

MD-PhD Clinical Research

Candidates who have completed a Master's degree in medicine can also apply for an MD-PhD Clinical Research with acquisition of the titles Dr. med. and Dr. sc. med . Ideally, these candidates will have already experience in clinical research, e.g. a master's thesis in clinical research, participation in relevant summer schools or research programs during the elective year. Medical students can be provisionally admitted to the MD-PhD programme after the content of their Master's thesis has been completed.

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• Administrators
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INFORMATION FOR

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Medical & Graduate Training

MD and PhD training are highly integrated throughout a student’s time at Yale. From the outset, MD-PhD specific courses within the pre-clinical curriculum focus on developing a physician-scientist identity in students. Opportunities to continue clinical practice while in graduate school enrich students’ understanding of physician-scientist careers. MD-PhD Program retreats, research seminars, and career development workshops and courses develop personal and professional skills specific to careers that bridge the clinic and laboratory.

Becoming a physician-scientist goes beyond completing medical school and graduate school; it’s about the life-long process of learning how to see limitations in clinical knowledge and practice as opportunities for discovery and learning. Our goal is train students to see the connections between clinical practice and research, and to teach them the professional skills needed to join these realms of clinical practice and research in their careers as physician-scientists.

The MD-PhD Program receives ~450 external applications for admission to the program annually, as well as applications from a small number of current 1st, 2nd or 3rd year medical students and 1st year PhD students who develop an interest in career trajectories that benefit from dual-degree training. These applicants are academically excellent and demonstrate significant experience and success in research. We have an increasing diversity of matriculated students along axes of race/ethnicity, geography, socioeconomic status and undergraduate institution, the result of intentional changes in recruiting and admissions practices over the past 5 years.

The table highlights the schools/departments that actively participate in MD-PhD student training as a result of ongoing communication and collaboration between Dr. Kazmierczak and her team of Associate Directors with the leadership of these departments and their many Directors of Graduate Studies (DGSs). The faculty within these departments and programs are committed to mentoring both PhD and MD-PhD predoctoral and postdoctoral trainees and participate in a number of federally-funded institutional research training programs.

Participating Medical and Research Training Entities

MD-PhD training is supported by multiple professional schools at Yale, as well as the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences (GSAS). Our MD-PhD program has strong relationships with leaders and faculty in each school, allowing our students to take advantage of the strengths of our diverse faculty.

1) Biological and Biomedical Sciences (BBS) Program at Yale School of Medicine. This PhD umbrella program encompasses 10 departments and the Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program (INP) based at three interconnected campuses: the Medical School, Science Hill and West Campus. Most current students have affiliated with a BBS department.

2) Yale School of Public Health. Around 10% of our current students have affiliated with PhD-granting departments in YSPH, which include Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases; Biostatistics; Chronic Disease Epidemiology; Environmental Health Sciences; Health Policy & Management.

3) Yale School of Engineering and Applied Sciences. Twelve current MD-PhD students have affiliated with the Biomedical Engineering program.

4) Yale GSAS. MD-PhD students have affiliated with the following “non-traditional” departments over the past decade: History of Science/History of Medicine, Anthropology, Social Sciences, Applied Mathematics, and Religious Studies.

5) Yale School of Medicine (YSM) . Our LCME-accredited medical school opened in 1813, adopted its MD student thesis requirement in 1839, admitted its first female students in 1916, and currently provides preclinical and clinical training to all MD-PhD students at Yale. Each entering class of 104 medical students includes ~20 MD-PhD trainees, who participate in the 18-month pre-clinical curriculum and first two clerkship blocks (3 months each) side-by-side with their entering class.

Clinical Training Entities

1) Yale New Haven Hospital (YNHH) . YNHH serves as the primary teaching hospital for MD-PhD students. This non-profit tertiary care center has 1,541 beds at two campuses in downtown New Haven, York Street and St. Raphael, and encompasses the Smilow Cancer Hospital at YNHH, YNHH Children’s Hospital and YNHH Psychiatric Hospital. 1.5 million outpatient encounters were recorded in 2017 at YNHH.

2) VA Connecticut Health Care System in West Haven provides a core training site (inpatient and outpatient) for YSM medical students, residents and fellows.

3) Yale School of Nursing and Physician Assistant Programs. Students in the PA program and the nursing school train with 1st year medical students as part of the Interprofessional Longitudinal Clinical Experience (ILCE). The ILCE teams utilize clinical sites at YNHH and at southeastern Connecticut sites that belong to the Yale Affiliated Hospital Program, namely Bridgeport, Danbury, Greenwich, Griffin, Norwalk, St. Mary’s and Waterbury Hospitals.

Training Faculty

Specific required elements of dual-degree training and evaluation, medical school.

Preclinical Medical School Curriculum . The current preclinical curriculum was introduced in 2015, after a 5-year process of re-examination of curricular content by multiple medical school committees. The content of the preclinical curriculum was re-organized and now follows a “systems” based approach. Multiple “threads” (including basic science, pathology/pathophysiology, anatomy, public health, and epidemiology/biostats) carry through the 18-month curriculum longitudinally. Teaching formats have been diversified, based on literature that supports the efficacy of flipped classrooms, team-based learning, and experiential learning. Student and instructor feedback guide revisions and improvements to the curriculum, with many surveys focused on ensuring that important content was covered in the curriculum while avoiding redundancy. Although Yale does not give grades for medical coursework in the pre-clinical curriculum, with the exception of certain courses taken by MD-PhD students for graduate credit, students take regular self-assessments to measure and guide learning and must pass “qualifier” exams in each subject area. Scores on these exams are revealed only to students, unless the student fails. In this case, the student must remediate with the instructor in the subject area and achieve a passing grade on the qualifier.

Interprofessional Longitudinal Clinical Experience/Medical Coaching Experience . Clinical skills are taught to MD and MD-PhD students from the start of medical school and practiced in small groups that also include physician assistant and nursing students (ILCE). Beginning in April of Year 1, medical students receive coaching in groups of 4 on history taking and clinical exam skills. Student learning of clinical skills is assessed by standardized assessment of history-taking and clinical exam skills (C-OSCE 2) prior to start of clerkships.

Integrated Clinical Clerkships . Restructured clinical clerkships were introduced in 2014. Four 12-week blocks integrate related clinical disciplines and provide unified coursework that covers common clinical and basic science material. A “Precede” includes a clinical skill boot camp, while a “Postcede” consolidates learning and provides opportunity for reflection (“Power Hour”). MD-PhD students usually complete the “Medical Approach to the Patient” block (Internal Medicine & Neurology) in Y2, as this allows them to participate in longitudinal clinical electives during the PhD years. They also complete a second clerkship, choosing from “Surgical Approach to the Patient” (Emergency Medicine & Surgery), “Women and Children’s Health” (OB-Gyn & Pediatrics), and “Biopsychosocial Approach to Health” (Psychiatry, Ambulatory Medicine). (Appendix 1A: YSM Integrated Course Curriculum). Students receive grades and evaluative comments from clinical preceptors that are included in their Medical Student Performance Evaluation (MSPE). Students are anonymously surveyed about the learning environment on the wards, and all reports of bias or abuse toward student trainees are discussed with the clerkship director and addressed, e.g. by education of supervising attendings and housestaff. Student learning is assessed by USMLE Step 2 CK/CS exams and performance on the standardized assessment of history taking and physical exam (C-OSCE 4), and students must pass these exams in order to graduate.

Capstone Course . This 3-week required course in the final year of medical school focuses on internship-readiness for graduating students. Specialty “boot camps” reinforce clinical and technical skills.

Graduate School

Coursework and Teaching . Each PhD department or program that trains MD-PhD students has established course and teaching requirements for dual-degree students. Students must obtain “Honors” grades in two graduate school courses before admission to candidacy.

Qualifying Exam. Each PhD department requires students to pass an area exam or qualifying exam; the process is department-specific and described in Yale Graduate School’s Programs and Policies Bulletin . The student is admitted to candidacy when they pass the qualifying exam and submit their dissertation prospectus, normally at the end of Year 4 in the program. The MD-PhD program has incorporated additional training and assessment of rigor and reproducibility at the time of the qualifying exam.

Thesis Committee . MD-PhD students follow department specific rules to convene their thesis committee. In addition, a MD-PhD Director joins the committee to monitor student progress, provide information about unique aspects of dual-degree training, and help coordinate completion of PhD requirements with the process of re-entry to the wards. This, along with twice-annual committee meetings, helps our students in several ways: it identifies potential problems with project or advisor early; it provides additional mentoring/oversight that improves retention in training and progress toward degree; it helps students and faculty focus on training goals unique to MD-PhD students, e.g. the need to integrate the re-entry timeline with completion of PhD requirements. The committee meets separately with the student and advisor at the start of each meeting, so that any concerns can be shared openly. Committee meetings are guided by a formal “report” form, which includes consideration of the student’s career objectives and Individual Development Plan (see below). This form is signed by the advisor and committee members, reviewed with the student, and submitted to the departmental DGS.

Dissertation Progress Report . Each student submits an annual progress report to the Graduate School that must be reviewed and signed by both advisor and DGS; this report is also shared with the MD-PhD Director. D5. Dissertation Defense and Publications. Each department has specific requirements for graduation. In addition, the MD-PhD program requires (1) that the dissertation be submitted and successfully defended and (2) that a 1st author manuscript be submitted before the student can resume clinical training.

Requirements Unique to MD-PhD Students

Individual Development Plan (IDP) . In 2014, a committee of MD-PhD students constructed an IDP instrument, based on examples from other dual-degree programs and with iterative input from the student body. Beginning in Fall 2014, all students complete the IDP annually and review their career and training goals for the coming year, as well as their progress towards these goals, with the Program Director(1st year students and graduating students), the Associate Director who is their MD-PhD academic advisor (2nd through penultimate year), or the Associate Director for Clinical Education (penultimate “re-entry” year). The IDP review monitors student progress, identifies areas in which a student can benefit from additional advisors or mentors, and allows a student to re-evaluate their personal and professional goals throughout the training period.

Responsible Conduct of Research . The teaching and practice of the principles that underlie high-quality research through the explicit inclusion of training in scientific rigor and reproducibility occurs at multiple phases of MD-PhD training. Each student’s ability to critically assess their own and others’ work through the lens of rigor and reproducibility is reinforced and measured at several stages of training. Over 10 hours of workshops in RCR is required of all MD-PhD students in their first year in the program and again in Year 5. A mandatory course on Rigorous Experimental Design is offered in Year 3 of MD-PhD training. Mentor training, required of all participating faculty, makes clear the expectation that responsible conduct of research is to be discussed regularly within the laboratory with trainees.

Annual Retreat. The mandatory annual retreat for MD-PhD students has undergone several changes over past years to emphasize its role in MD-PhD community building and career development. In its current form, this overnight event occurs early in the academic year and intentionally focuses on bringing younger and older students together. The retreat always includes events that highlight student research (in 2018, a “pitch-slam” research talk competition involving all students as presenters or judges), career choices and/or work-life balance (usually a panel discussion featuring MD-PhDs), near-peer mentoring (in 2018, focused on “transitions” into the lab, back to the wards, and into residency/postdoc training) and programmatic priorities (presented by the Student Council, Council on Diversity and Inclusion, and Directors). The Folkers Lecture is usually delivered as part of the retreat and features an inspiring physician-scientist (in 2018, Helena Hansen MD’05, PhD’05, Assoc Prof of Psychiatry, NYU). A student committee programs the Retreat with faculty assistance, and students are surveyed after the retreat.

Science at the Frontiers of Medicine (CB600/601). “Science at the Frontiers of Medicine” is a full-year (32 week) course for first-year MD-PhD students that meets weekly for 1.5 hours. The course focuses on the science that underlies medical practice and follows the progression of topics in the 18-month pre-clinical medical school curriculum. This course serves as a first introduction to the principles of rigor and reproducibility for MD-PhD trainees. The varied expertise and prior knowledge of each of our ~20 incoming MD-PhD students challenges us to design a curriculum that engages each student while providing a framework for how to evaluate experimental design, scientific techniques, analytical approaches, data reporting and research conduct. Ongoing, iterative changes have ensured that the course allows students to master key fundamental skills that can be applied to the conduct their own research.

Research Rotations and Affiliation with Laboratory and Advisor . MD-PhD students are required to complete 2-3 research rotations, which usually occur after the 1st year of medical school.

Research in Progress (RIP) . All students present their PhD research in a specific MD-PhD RIP forum 1-3 times during training. RIP talks have several purposes. They allow student speakers to learn how to present their research to a knowledgeable but non-expert audience in a 15-20 minute format; they allow students to learn about ongoing research, and potential projects or collaborations; they provide formal feedback to speakers from students and faculty in the audience via a formal survey instrument. Directors attend these monthly RIP talks and provide feedback to each speaker. Dinner is provided at RIP, making this a social as well as scientific programmatic event.

Lab-to-Wards Transition and Re-Entry Elective . All students in Year 5 or later of the program attend a mandatory spring meeting outlining the timeline and requirements for returning to the wards. At that time and semiannually thereafter, students answer a questionnaire about their anticipated timeline for returning to the wards, which guides the process of re-credentialing students and scheduling their clerkships. The MD-PhD program offers a 2-week immersion "Re-entry" elective to refresh in-patient clinical skills. These electives are on an internal medicine service led by an attending and house-staff team or an attending hospitalist team at the student's choice of our three medical campuses. The grade is pass/fail. The student is given elective credit and an evaluation is prepared by the precepting attending. The student may also solicit evaluations from residents. The student evaluates the attending and the elective at completion. Most students take these electives immediately following their defense in the month prior to returning to clinical medicine. This is a mandatory elective for student who have not had patient contact for more than one year prior to formal re-entry into clinical medicine and is taken by most students as a useful and stress-reducing re-introduction to the inpatient environment.

Curriculum in Leadership and Research Management for Physician-Scientists . Career development workshops and trainings that have been offered to MD-PhD students over the past years are now restructured into a formal curriculum with required modules in “Teaching”, “Mentoring” and “Proposal Development”, and elective modules in “Communication”, “Leadership & Teamwork”, “Self-Management” and “Research Management”. Students will be required to complete one elective and 3 required modules, each of which will include an experiential component. Any student who completes all seven modules will receive a Certificate in Leadership and Research Management.

Student Intranet

Engineering Medicine

Degrees & Training

Degree programs.

The Purdue College of Engineering includes three degree programs: Biomedical Engineering PhD, Combined Clinical MD/PhD BME Physician-Engineer Training Program, and the MS BME program for medical students.

Biomedical Engineering PhD

The PhD options in biomedical engineering are highly interdisciplinary in nature involving faculty at Purdue's Colleges of Engineering, Science and Veterinary Medicine on the West Lafayette campus. Doctoral program students work towards translating discoveries into effective medical products. These programs span modern biomedical engineering and build on a deep history of research that has had significant industrial and clinical impact.

MD/PHD BME Physician-Engineer Training Program (MSTP)

The field-defining collaborative Medical Scientist Training Program (MSTP) was initiated in 2008 to educate the next generation of physician-engineers through integrated MD and PhD training. It continues to garner recurring National Institutes of Health funding and significant accolades. The program sets the trends in academic medicine and industry as to how advanced technologies and approaches can optimally improve patient care and clinical outcomes. It is for students committed to a career that intimately integrates engineering design and translational research with clinical care.

There have been more than three dozen graduates of this hallmark program. These graduates are intimately involved in a burgeoning number of clinical trials at Indiana University Health to evaluate the latest advances in both hospital and clinic settings.

MS BME Program for Medical Students

A research-based master's degree program was established in 2018 in the Purdue College of Engineering for Indiana University School of Medicine medical students seeking to earn both MD and MS BME degrees. The seamless integration of the timelines for the two degrees allows these students to complete both degrees in five years.

The MS BME program for medical students leverages the students' clinical training and medical school coursework to advance innovative engineering solutions for challenges in healthcare delivery. Significant areas for translational research projects include implantable medical devices, engineered tissues and biomaterials, point-of-care diagnostics, advanced medical imaging, and systems engineering of healthcare delivery.

Students earning this degree gain firsthand knowledge of medical technology innovation and strategies for clinical translation. They will strengthen their ability to pursue medical research, to facilitate clinical testing of new therapies, and to collaborate effectively with the biomedical industry.

Auditory Neurosciences Training Group

Launched in 2018, the Auditory Neurosciences Training Group (ANTG) offers a training program at the intersection of auditory neuroscience and innovation technologies, such as neuroimaging, stimulation devices, electrophysiology and mathematical modeling. The program targets a highly diverse cadre of doctoral students for translational research in speech and hearing science and technologies.

Prospective Students

Learn more on our Graduate Programs webpage.

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Ying Zhang, M.D., M.S., Ph.D.

Director, center for american indian health research & presidential associate professor.

Hudson College of Public Health 801 Northeast 13th Street, Room 112D Post Office Box 26901 Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73104

(405) 271-2229, x48073

[email protected]

Dr. Zhang joined the Center for American Indian Health Research (CAIHR) in 1999 as a postdoctoral fellow to work on the NIH-funded Strong Heart Study (SHS). She was promoted to Assistant Professor of Research in 2005. She then joined the Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology (BSE) in 2012. She was promoted to Associate Professor in 2017 and, in 2020, became the Director of the CAIHR that had become one of the research centers in the Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology. The CAIHR is mainly funded by NIH contracts and research grants.  

Since she joined BSE, Dr. Zhang has advised/mentored 40 MPH, six MS, four CTS (Master of Clinical and Translational Science), one DrPH, and 11 PhD students. Most of her students went to work in biomedical research institutes, public health agencies, or healthcare industry after graduation. Some of them also chose to further their training in medical and dental schools. Dr. Zhang is very supportive of students’ personal and academic growth.   

Dr. Zhang’s research focuses on the statistical methods used to study pathophysiology of diabetes mellitus and its micro- and macro-vascular complications that include diabetes kidney disease, cardiovascular diseases, and nonalcoholic liver disease. She is especially interested in longitudinal and survival data analyses of independent or related observations. Recently, she is working on lipidomic data analyses and protecting data privacy. Her research has been funded by multiple NIH contracts and grants in which she serves as a Principal Investigator or Co-Investigator. She has dedicated to health research among American Indians for over two decades. She is currently the Principal Investigator of the SHS Coordinating Center (CC) that provides administrative, operational, technical, statistical, and data management support for this NIH-funded multicentered prospective study among American Indians that has been ongoing for more than 30 years.      

In addition, Dr. Zhang serves the academic communities at department, college, university, and national levels.

• Post-Doctoral training, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 1999–2005 
• PhD, Biostatistics, West China University of Medical Sciences, 1998 
• MS, Biostatistics, West China University of Medical Sciences, 1994 
• MD, Preventive Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences, 1991

Appointments:

• Associate Professor, Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Hudson College of Public Health, OUHSC, 2017–present
• Assistant professor of Research, Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Hudson College of Public Health, OUHSC, 2012–2017
• Assistant professor of Research, Center for American Indian Health Research, Hudson College of Public Health, OUHSC, 2005–2012
• Post-Doctoral Training, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center
• Lecturer, Department of Health Statistics, School of Public Health, West China University of Medical Sciences, Chengdu, Sichuan, China, 1994–1999
• BSE 5163 Biostatistics Methods I
• BSE 5173 Biostatistics Methods II
• BSE 5663 Analysis of Frequency Data

Clinical/Research Interests:

• Time-to-event and longitudinal data analyses for independent or related outcomes 
• American Indian Health 
• Lipidomic data analyses 
• Data privacy 
• Pathophysiology of diabetes mellitus and its micro- and macro-vascular complications that include diabetes kidney disease, cardiovascular diseases, and nonalcoholic liver disease 
• Categorical data analysis 
• Model building 
• Study design and sample size 

Active Research Funding Grants:

2019-2026, 75N92019D00027, National Institute of Health, NHLBI, “Strong Heart Study Coordinating Center (SHS-CC)”. Principal Investigator (PI). 

Major Goals: SHS-CC supports a collaboration among study participants, American Indian tribes/communities, investigators nationwide, and the funding agency by building a trustful relationship and sense of ownership among all participating parties. Furthermore, SHS-CC provides support of data management and statistical analyses.  

2017-2021, 1R01HL136835-01A1, National Institute of Health, NHLBI subcontract to the University of California, San Diego: “Protecting Privacy and Facilitating Shared Access of Clinical and Genetic Data of Special Populations”. PI of the subcontract. 

Major Goals: Our study aims to develop advanced technologies and scientific computing toolkits to enable shared, but protected, data access to SHS data, as well as to study the data sharing preferences of SHS participants. The approaches will abide by SHS Tribal sovereignty and agreements that include Tribal review and approval of all SHS data requests. 

2020-2022, OT2HL158276, National Institute of Health, NHLBI, NIND, and NIA funded subcontract to the Columbia University “Collaborative Cohort of Cohorts for COVID-19 Research (C4R)”. One of the mPI of the subcontract.  

Major Goals: A new nationwide study of more than 50,000 individuals to determine factors that predict disease severity and long-term health impacts of COVID-19. 

2019-22026, 75N92019D00021, National Institute of Health, NHLBI: “Strong Heart Study Oklahoma Field Center (OK FC)”. Co-Investigator.  

Major Goals: Recruiting/consenting SHS participants, conducting morbidity and mortality surveillance, engaging participating AI communities, publishing study results, and training/mentoring community members, students, and junior investigators are some of the crucial research components of the OK FC. 

Select Publications:

Link to Dr. Zhang's current publications

• Rhoades DA, Farley J, Schwartz SM, Wang W, Best L, Zhang Y, Ali T, Yeh F, Rhoades ER, Lee ET, Howard BV. Cancer Mortality in a Population-Based Cohort of American Indians - The Strong Heart Study. Cancer Epidemiology. 2021 Oct 74: 101978  https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877782121000953  
• Navas-Acien A, Domingo-Relloso A, Subedi P, Riffo-Campos AL, Xia R, Gomez L, Haack K, Goldsmith J, Howard BV, Best LG, Devereux RB, Tauqeer A, Zhang Y, Fretts AM, Pichler G, Levy D, Vasan RS, Baccarelli AA, Herreros-Martinez M, Tang WY, Bressler J, Fornage M, Umans JG, Tellez-Plaza M, Fallin MD, Zhao JY, Cole SA. Blood DNA methylation and prediction of incident coronary heart disease: Evidence from the Strong Heart Study and replication across diverse populations. JAMA Cardiol. doi:10.1001/jamacardio.2021.2704 Published online August 4, 2021.  
• Domingo-Relloso A; Huan T, Haack K, Riffo-Campos AL, Levy D, Fallin MD, Terry MB, Zhang Y, Rhoades DA, Herreros-Martinez N, Garcia-Esquinas E, Cole SA, Tellez-Plaza M, Navas-Acien A. DNA methylation and cancer incidence: lymphatic-hematopoietic vs. solid cancers in the Strong Heart Study. Clinical Epigenetics. 2021 Feb 25;13(1):43. doi: 10.1186/s13148-021-01030-8. PMID: 33632303 PMC7908806 
• Kaufman J, Mattison C, Fretts AM, Umans JG, Cole SA, Vorunganti VS, Goessler W, Best LG, Zhang Y, Tellez-Plaza; Ana Navas-Acien M, Gribble MO. Arsenic, Blood Pressure, and Hypertension in the Strong Heart Family Study. Environ Res. 2021 Apr;195:110864. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.110864. PMID: 33581093 PMCID: PMC8021390 
• Suchy-Dicey AM, Zhang Y, McPherson S, Tuttle KR, Howard BV, Umans J, Buchwald BS. Glomerular filtration function decline, mortality, and cardiovascular events: data from the Strong Heart Study. Kidney360 Nov. 2020, 10.34067/KID.0000782020;DOI:  https://doi.org/10.34067/KID.0000782020  

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MD-PhD Degree Programs by State

New section.

Combined MD-PhD degree programs provide students the opportunity to earn both the MD and the PhD in areas pertinent to medicine.

Combined MD-PhD degree programs provide students the opportunity to earn both the MD and the PhD in areas pertinent to medicine. Below is a list of schools offering a combined MD-PhD degree, with links to their web sites. Please contact the institutions directly for curriculum information and admission requirements. School administrators may contact [email protected]  with any omissions or corrections to this listing.

University of Alabama School of Medicine Birmingham, Ala.

University of South Alabama College of Medicine Mobile, Ala.

University of Arizona College of Medicine Tucson, Ariz.

University of Arizona College of Medicine - Phoenix Phoenix, Ariz.

University of Arkansas College of Medicine Little Rock, Ark.

Kaiser Permanente Bernard J. Tyson School of Medicine Pasadena, Calif.

Loma Linda University School of Medicine  Loma Linda, Calif.

Stanford University School of Medicine Stanford, Calif.

University of California, Davis School of Medicine Davis, Calif.

University of California, Irvine School of Medicine Irvine, Calif.

University of California, Los Angeles School of Medicine Los Angeles, Calif.

University of California, San Diego School of Medicine La Jolla, Calif.

University of California, San Francisco School of Medicine San Francisco, Calif.

Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California Los Angeles, Calif.

University of Colorado Health Sciences Center Denver, Colo.

Connecticut

University of Connecticut School of Medicine Farmington, Conn.

Yale University School of Medicine New Haven, Conn.

District of Columbia

Georgetown University School of Medicine Washington, D.C.

Howard University College of Medicine Washington, D.C.

University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville, Fla.

University of Miami Miller School of Medicine Miami, Fla.

University of South Florida College of Medicine Tampa, Fla.

Emory University School of Medicine Atlanta, Ga.

Morehouse School of Medicine Atlanta, Ga.

Medical College of Georgia at Augusta University Augusta, Ga.

Loyola University of Chicago - Stritch School of Medicine Maywood, Ill.

Northwestern University Medical School  Chicago, Ill.

Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science - Chicago Medical School North Chicago, Ill.

University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine (MTSP) Chicago, Ill.

University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine (MD/PhD) Chicago, Ill.

University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine Chicago, Ill.

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Carle Illinois College of Medicine Urbana, Ill.

Indiana University School of Medicine Indianapolis, Ind.

University of Iowa College of Medicine Iowa City, Iowa

University of Kansas School of Medicine Kansas City, Kan.

University of Kentucky College of Medicine Lexington, Ky.

University of Louisville School of Medicine Louisville, Ky.

Louisiana State University, New Orleans School of Medicine New Orleans, La.

Louisiana State University, Shreveport School of Medicine Shreveport, La.

Tulane University School of Medicine New Orleans, La.

Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine Baltimore, Md.

National Institutes of Health Intramural MD-PhD Partnership Bethesda, Md.

Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences Bethesda, Md.

University of Maryland at Baltimore School of Medicine Baltimore, Md.

Massachusetts

Boston University School of Medicine Boston, Mass.

Harvard Medical School Boston, Mass.

Tufts University School of Medicine Boston, Mass.

University of Massachusetts Medical School Worcester, Mass.

Michigan State University College of Human Medicine East Lansing, Mich.

University of Michigan Medical School Ann Arbor, Mich.

Wayne State University School of Medicine Detroit, Mich.

Mayo Medical School Rochester, Minn.

University of Minnesota Medical School Minneapolis, Minn.

Mississippi

University of Mississippi School of Medicine Jackson, Miss.

Saint Louis University School of Medicine St. Louis, Mo.

University of Missouri - Columbia School of Medicine Columbia, Mo.

University of Missouri - Kansas City School of Medicine Kansas City, Mo.

Washington University School of Medicine St. Louis, Mo.

Creighton University School of Medicine Omaha, Neb.

University of Nebraska College of Medicine Omaha, Neb.

University of Nevada School of Medicine Reno, Nev.

New Hampshire

Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth Hanover, N.H.

Rutgers - New Jersey Medical School Newark, N.J.

Rutgers - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School Piscataway, N.J.

University of New Mexico School of Medicine Albuquerque, N.M.

Albany Medical College Albany, N.Y.

Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University Bronx, N.Y.

Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons New York, N.Y.

Hofstra North Shore - LIJ School of Medicine Hempstead, N.Y.

Weill Cornell/Rockefeller/Sloan-Kettering Tri-Institutional MD/PhD Program New York, N.Y.

Mount Sinai School of Medicine New York, N.Y.

New York Medical College Valhalla, N.Y.

New York University School of Medicine New York, N.Y.

SUNY at Buffalo School of Medicine Buffalo, N.Y.

SUNY at Stony Brook Health Sciences Center Stony Brook, N.Y.

SUNY Downstate Medical Center College of Medicine Brooklyn, N.Y.

SUNY Upstate Medical University Syracuse, N.Y.

University of Rochester School of Medicine Rochester, N.Y.

North Carolina

Wake Forest School of Medicine Winston-Salem, N.C.

Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University Greenville, N.C.

Duke University School of Medicine Durham, N.C.

University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine Chapel Hill, N.C.

North Dakota

University of North Dakota School of Medicine Grand Forks, N.D.

Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine Cleveland, Ohio

Northeastern Ohio College of Medicine Rootstown, Ohio

Ohio State University College of Medicine Columbus, Ohio

University of Cincinnati College of Medicine Cincinnati, Ohio

University of Toledo College of Medicine Toledo, Ohio

Wright State University School of Medicine Dayton, Ohio

University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center Oklahoma City, Okla.

Oregon Health Sciences University School of Medicine Portland, Ore.

Pennsylvania

Drexel University College of Medicine Philadelphia, Pa.

Sidney Kimmel Medical College at Thomas Jefferson University Philadelphia, Pa.

Penn State University College of Medicine Hershey, Pa.

University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine Philadelphia, Pa.

University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh, Pa.

Temple University School of Medicine Philadelphia, Pa.

Rhode Island

Brown University School of Medicine Providence, R.I.

South Carolina

Medical University of South Carolina Charleston, S.C.

University of South Carolina School of Medicine Columbia, S.C.

South Dakota

University of South Dakota School of Medicine Vermillion, S.D.

East Tennessee State University James H. Quillen College of Medicine Johnson City, Tenn.

Meharry Medical College School of Medicine Nashville, Tenn.

University of Tennessee, Memphis College of Medicine Memphis, Tenn.

Vanderbilt University School of Medicine Nashville, Tenn.

Baylor College of Medicine Houston, Texas

McGovern Medical School at UTHealth/MD Anderson Cancer Center/University of Puerto Rico Tri-Institutional Program Houston, Texas

Texas A&M University Health Sciences Center College of Medicine College Station, Texas

Texas Tech University School of Medicine Lubbock, Texas

University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston Galveston, Texas

University of Texas Health San Antonio, Long School of Medicine San Antonio, Texas

University of Texas, Southwestern Med Center - Dallas Dallas, Texas

University of Utah School of Medicine Salt Lake City, Utah

University of Vermont College of Medicine Burlington, Vt.

Eastern Virginia Medical School Norfolk, Va.

Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine Richmond, Va.

University of Virginia School of Medicine Charlottesville, Va.

University of Washington School of Medicine Seattle, Wash.

West Virginia

Marshall University School of Medicine Huntington, W.Va.

West Virginia University School of Medicine Morgantown, W.Va.

Medical College of Wisconsin Milwaukee, Wisc.

University of Wisconsin Medical School Madison, Wisc.

McGill University Faculty of Medicine Montreal, Quebec

McMaster University of Faculty of Health Sciences Hamilton, Ontario

Memorial University of Newfoundland Faculty of Medicine St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador

Universite de Montreal Faculte de Medecine Montreal, Quebec

Universite de Sherbrooke Faculte de Medecine Sherbrooke, Quebec

Universite Laval Faculte de Medecine Quebec, Quebec

University of Alberta Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry Edmonton, Alberta

University of Calgary Faculty of Medicine Calgary, Alberta

University of British Columbia Faculty of Medicine Vancouver, British Columbia

University of Manitoba Faculty of Medicine Winnipeg, Manitoba

University of Saskatchewan College of Medicine Saskatoon, Saskatchewan

University of Toronto Faculty of Medicine Toronto, Ontario

University of Western Ontario London, Ontario

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Clinical psychology (child emphasis) - phd, admission requirements.

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For the 2025-2026 academic year

See 2024-2025 requirements instead

Fall 2025 quarter (beginning in September)

Final submission deadline: December 2, 2024

Final submission deadline: Applicants cannot submit applications after the final submission deadline.

Degrees and GPA Requirements

Bachelors degree: All graduate applicants must hold an earned baccalaureate from a regionally accredited college or university or the recognized equivalent from an international institution.

University GPA requirement: The minimum grade point average for admission consideration for graduate study at the University of Denver must meet one of the following criteria:

A cumulative 2.5 on a 4.0 scale for the baccalaureate degree.

A cumulative 2.5 on a 4.0 scale for the last 60 semester credits or 90 quarter credits (approximately two years of work) for the baccalaureate degree.

An earned master’s degree or higher from a regionally accredited institution or the recognized equivalent from an international institution supersedes the minimum GPA requirement for the baccalaureate.

A cumulative GPA of 3.0 on a 4.0 scale for all graduate coursework completed for applicants who have not earned a master’s degree or higher.

Official scores from the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), International English Language Testing System (IELTS), C1 Advanced or Duolingo English Test are required of all graduate applicants, regardless of citizenship status, whose native language is not English or who have been educated in countries where English is not the native language. Your TOEFL/IELTS/C1 Advanced/Duolingo English Test scores are valid for two years from the test date.

The minimum TOEFL/IELTS/C1 Advanced/Duolingo English Test score requirements for this degree program are:

Minimum TOEFL Score (Internet-based test): 80 (including a minimum of 26 on the speaking section)

Minimum IELTS Score: 6.5 (including a minimum of 8 on the speaking section)

Minimum C1 Advanced Score: 176 (including a minimum of 200 on the speaking section)

Minimum Duolingo English Test Score: 115

Additional Information:

Read the English Language Proficiency policy for more details.

Read the Required Tests for GTA Eligibility policy for more details.

Per Student & Exchange Visitor Program (SEVP) regulation, international applicants must meet all standards for admission before an I-20 or DS-2019 is issued, [per U.S. Federal Register: 8 CFR § 214.3(k)] or is academically eligible for admission and is admitted [per 22 C.F.R. §62]. Read the Additional Standards For International Applicants policy for more details.

Application Materials

Transcripts, standardized test scores, letters of recommendation.

Required Essays and Statements

We require a scanned copy of your transcripts from every college or university you have attended. Scanned copies must be clearly legible and sized to print on standard 8½-by-11-inch paper. Transcripts that do not show degrees awarded must also be accompanied by a scanned copy of the diploma or degree certificate. If your academic transcripts were issued in a language other than English, both the original documents and certified English translations are required.

Transcripts and proof of degree documents for postsecondary degrees earned from institutions outside of the United States will be released to a third-party international credential evaluator to assess U.S. education system equivalencies. Beginning July 2023, a non-refundable fee for this service will be required before the application is processed.

Upon admission to the University of Denver, official transcripts will be required from each institution attended.

GRE scores are optional for admission to this program. Applications submitted without scores will receive full consideration. Every application undergoes a comprehensive evaluation, including a careful review of all application materials. If you choose to submit test scores, you may upload your Test Taker Score Report PDF, which is considered unofficial. Official scores must be received directly from the appropriate testing agency upon admission to the University of Denver. The ETS institution code to submit GRE scores to the University of Denver is 4842.

University Standardized Test Policy

Three (3) letters of recommendation are required.  Letters should be submitted by recommenders through the online application.

Essays and Statements

Personal statement instructions.

Please prepare approximately 2-3 pages of typewritten, double-spaced autobiographical material which will be considered confidential. Please be aware that the review committees may contain graduate student representatives. Indicate the source of your interest in psychology and the reasons why you wish to pursue graduate studies in your chosen area of specialization. If you have had practical experience (work or volunteer) in psychology, please describe it. If you have been in another area of academic study or employment, discuss your change. When and how was your attention directed to our graduate program? Indicate how the specific features of our training program would facilitate your professional goals.  In your autobiographical statement, please state which faculty member(s) you would like to do your research with. Explain why the faculty’s research interests represent a match with your own training goals and your career plans. Please type the name(s) of your proposed mentor(s) on a separate line at the end of your autobiographical statement so as to facilitate screening. Mentors can be from any program. So, for example, clinical child applicants may list a faculty mentor that is not a member of the clinical child faculty. If there is one person you are primarily interested in, name one; if there are two who you are interested in, name two. There is no advantage to naming just one person or naming two people. What is important is the rationale for your choice.

Diversity Statement Instructions

The University of Denver values diversity, equity, and inclusion, recognizing that its success is dependent on how well it values, engages, and includes the rich diversity of constituents. Diversity is defined broadly. Applicants are required to include an essay (maximum of one-page, double spaced) describing how their educational, professional, clinical, or personal (e.g. cultural, economic or social) experiences prepare them to contribute to diversity, equity, and inclusion during their graduate career at DU. Contributions to diversity, equity, and inclusion may come in the form of research topic, research population, clinical work (if applicable), professional service, personal perspective, and more. To learn more about diversity, equity, and inclusion at the University of Denver, please visit https://www.du.edu/equity .

Résumé Instructions

Please submit a résumé that includes publications, professional presentations, awards and scholarships, professional experience (both research and clinical), and membership in professional organizations.

Start the Application

Online Application

Financial Aid Information

Start your application.

Your submitted materials will be reviewed once all materials and application fees have been received.

Our program can only consider your application for admission if our Office of Graduate Education has received all your online materials and supplemental materials by our application deadline.

Application Fee: $65.00 Application Fee

International Degree Evaluation Fee: $50.00 Evaluation Fee for degrees (bachelor's or higher) earned from institutions outside the United States.

Applicants should complete their Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) by February 15. Visit the Office of Financial Aid for additional information.