What is critical thinking (a definition).
How to think critically.
Video: 5 tips to improve your critical thinking.
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Even a few simple techniques for logical decision making and persuasion can vastly improve your skills as a leader. Explore how critical thinking can help you evaluate complex business problems, reduce bias, and devise effective solutions.
Problem-solving is a central business skill, and yet it's the one many people struggle with most. This course will show you how to apply critical thinking techniques to common business examples, avoid misunderstandings, and get at the root of any problem.
Contrary to popular belief, being intelligent or logical does not automatically make you a critical thinker.
People with high IQs are still prone to biases, complacency, overconfidence, and stereotyping that affect the quality of their thoughts and performance at work. But people who scored high in critical thinking —a reflection of sound analytical, problem-solving, and decision-making abilities—report having fewer negative experiences in and out of the office.
To learn how to think critically, you’ll need to identify and understand what prevents people from doing so in the first place. Catching yourself (and others) engaging in these critical thinking no-no’s can help prevent costly mistakes and improve your quality of life.
Here are five of the most common barriers to critical thinking.
Egoism, or viewing everything in relation to yourself, is a natural human tendency and a common barrier to critical thinking. It often leads to an inability to question one’s own beliefs, sympathize with others, or consider different perspectives.
Egocentricity is an inherent character flaw. Understand that, and you’ll gain the open-minded point of view required to assess situations outside your own lens of understanding.
Everyone wants to feel like they belong. It’s a basic survival instinct and psychological mechanism that ensures the survival of our species. Historically, humans banded together to survive in the wild against predators and each other. That desire to “fit in” persists today as groupthink, or the tendency to agree with the majority and suppress independent thoughts and actions.
Groupthink is a serious threat to diversity in that it supports social conditioning, or the idea that we should all adhere to a particular society or culture’s most “acceptable” behavior.
Overcoming groupthink and cultural conditioning requires the courage to break free from the crowd. It’s the only way to question popular thought, culturally embedded values, and belief systems in a detached and objective manner.
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Turning on “autopilot” and going through the motions can lead to a lack of spatial awareness. This is known as drone mentality, and it’s not only detrimental to you, but those around you, as well.
Studies show that monotony and boredom are bad for mental health . Cognitive fatigue caused by long-term mental activity without appropriate stimulation, like an unchanging daily routine full of repetitive tasks, negatively impairs cognitive functioning and critical thinking .
Although you may be tempted to flip on autopilot when things get monotonous, as a critical thinker you need to challenge yourself to make new connections and find fresh ideas. Adopt different schools of thought. Keep both your learning and teaching methods exciting and innovative, and that will foster an environment of critical thinking.
Everyone internalizes certain beliefs, opinions, and attitudes that manifest as personal biases. You may feel that you’re open minded, but these subconscious judgements are more common than most people realize. They can distort your thinking patterns and sway your decision making in the following ways:
The critical thinking process requires being aware of personal biases that affect your ability to rationally analyze a situation and make sound decisions.
Research shows that persistent stress causes a phenomenon known as allostatic overload . It’s serious business, affecting your attention span, memory, mood, and even physical health.
When under pressure, your brain is forced to channel energy into the section responsible for processing necessary information at the expense of taking a rest. That’s why people experience memory lapses in fight-or-flight situations. Prolonged stress also reduces activity in the prefrontal cortex, the part of the brain that handles executive tasks.
Avoiding cognitive impairments under pressure begins by remaining as calm and objective as possible. If you’re feeling overwhelmed, take a deep breath and slow your thoughts. Assume the role of a third-party observer. Analyze and evaluate what can be controlled instead of what can’t.
The bad news is that barriers to critical thinking can really sneak up on you and be difficult to overcome. But the good news is that anyone can learn to think critically with practice.
Unlike raw intelligence, which is largely determined by genetics , critical thinking can be mastered using nine teachable standards of thought:
When evaluating any task, situation, or piece of information, consider these intellectual standards to hone your critical thinking skills in a structured, practiced way. Keep it up, and eventually critical thinking will become second nature.
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From deciding what to eat for dinner to considering whether it's the right time to buy a house, problem-solving is a large part of our daily lives. Learn some of the problem-solving strategies that exist and how to use them in real life, along with ways to overcome obstacles that are making it harder to resolve the issues you face.
In cognitive psychology , the term 'problem-solving' refers to the mental process that people go through to discover, analyze, and solve problems.
A problem exists when there is a goal that we want to achieve but the process by which we will achieve it is not obvious to us. Put another way, there is something that we want to occur in our life, yet we are not immediately certain how to make it happen.
Maybe you want a better relationship with your spouse or another family member but you're not sure how to improve it. Or you want to start a business but are unsure what steps to take. Problem-solving helps you figure out how to achieve these desires.
The problem-solving process involves:
Before problem-solving can occur, it is important to first understand the exact nature of the problem itself. If your understanding of the issue is faulty, your attempts to resolve it will also be incorrect or flawed.
Several mental processes are at work during problem-solving. Among them are:
There are many ways to go about solving a problem. Some of these strategies might be used on their own, or you may decide to employ multiple approaches when working to figure out and fix a problem.
An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that, by following certain "rules" produces a solution. Algorithms are commonly used in mathematics to solve division or multiplication problems. But they can be used in other fields as well.
In psychology, algorithms can be used to help identify individuals with a greater risk of mental health issues. For instance, research suggests that certain algorithms might help us recognize children with an elevated risk of suicide or self-harm.
One benefit of algorithms is that they guarantee an accurate answer. However, they aren't always the best approach to problem-solving, in part because detecting patterns can be incredibly time-consuming.
There are also concerns when machine learning is involved—also known as artificial intelligence (AI)—such as whether they can accurately predict human behaviors.
Heuristics are shortcut strategies that people can use to solve a problem at hand. These "rule of thumb" approaches allow you to simplify complex problems, reducing the total number of possible solutions to a more manageable set.
If you find yourself sitting in a traffic jam, for example, you may quickly consider other routes, taking one to get moving once again. When shopping for a new car, you might think back to a prior experience when negotiating got you a lower price, then employ the same tactics.
While heuristics may be helpful when facing smaller issues, major decisions shouldn't necessarily be made using a shortcut approach. Heuristics also don't guarantee an effective solution, such as when trying to drive around a traffic jam only to find yourself on an equally crowded route.
A trial-and-error approach to problem-solving involves trying a number of potential solutions to a particular issue, then ruling out those that do not work. If you're not sure whether to buy a shirt in blue or green, for instance, you may try on each before deciding which one to purchase.
This can be a good strategy to use if you have a limited number of solutions available. But if there are many different choices available, narrowing down the possible options using another problem-solving technique can be helpful before attempting trial and error.
In some cases, the solution to a problem can appear as a sudden insight. You are facing an issue in a relationship or your career when, out of nowhere, the solution appears in your mind and you know exactly what to do.
Insight can occur when the problem in front of you is similar to an issue that you've dealt with in the past. Although, you may not recognize what is occurring since the underlying mental processes that lead to insight often happen outside of conscious awareness .
Research indicates that insight is most likely to occur during times when you are alone—such as when going on a walk by yourself, when you're in the shower, or when lying in bed after waking up.
If you're facing a problem, you can implement one or more of these strategies to find a potential solution. Here's how to use them in real life:
Problem-solving is not a flawless process as there are a number of obstacles that can interfere with our ability to solve a problem quickly and efficiently. These obstacles include:
In the end, if your goal is to become a better problem-solver, it's helpful to remember that this is a process. Thus, if you want to improve your problem-solving skills, following these steps can help lead you to your solution:
You can find a way to solve your problems as long as you keep working toward this goal—even if the best solution is simply to let go because no other good solution exists.
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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."
Critical thinking is an essential skill that allows individuals to analyze and evaluate information in a logical and objective manner. It involves the ability to question assumptions, consider different perspectives, and make informed decisions. However, there are several barriers that can hinder critical thinking. This article explores these barriers and provides strategies for overcoming them. By understanding and addressing these obstacles, individuals can enhance their critical thinking skills and make more effective decisions.
Emotional and cognitive biases can impede critical thinking.
Lack of information can limit the ability to make informed decisions.
Social and cultural influences can shape thinking patterns and hinder objectivity.
Fear of failure can prevent individuals from taking risks and exploring new ideas.
Recognizing and addressing biases, seeking diverse perspectives, developing information literacy, and building self-confidence are strategies for overcoming barriers to critical thinking.
Critical thinking is a vital skill that allows individuals to analyze and evaluate information objectively. It involves the ability to think logically, question assumptions, and consider multiple perspectives. By developing critical thinking skills, individuals can make informed decisions and solve problems effectively.
Critical thinking provides numerous benefits in various aspects of life. It enhances problem-solving skills, allowing individuals to analyze complex situations and come up with effective solutions. Critical thinking also improves decision-making abilities by enabling individuals to evaluate different options and make informed choices. Moreover, it promotes creativity and innovation, as it encourages individuals to think outside the box and consider alternative perspectives. Additionally, critical thinking fosters effective communication skills, as individuals are able to articulate their thoughts and ideas clearly and logically. Overall, developing critical thinking skills can lead to improved personal and professional success.
Critical thinking plays a crucial role in the process of decision making. It allows individuals to analyze information, evaluate options, and make informed choices. By applying critical thinking skills, individuals can assess the potential risks and benefits of different alternatives, consider multiple perspectives, and identify potential biases or fallacies in their reasoning. This helps in making more rational and logical decisions that are based on evidence and sound judgment.
Emotional and cognitive biases can significantly hinder critical thinking. These biases are often subconscious and can distort our perception of reality. One common bias is confirmation bias, where we tend to seek out information that confirms our existing beliefs and ignore or dismiss information that contradicts them. This can prevent us from considering alternative viewpoints and evaluating evidence objectively. Another bias is the availability heuristic, which leads us to rely on readily available information when making judgments or decisions, rather than considering all relevant information. These biases can lead to flawed reasoning and prevent us from critically analyzing situations and making informed decisions.
One of the barriers to critical thinking is a lack of information. When we don’t have access to relevant and accurate information, it becomes difficult to make informed decisions and think critically. Without sufficient information, our understanding of a situation or problem may be limited, leading to biased or incomplete thinking. It is important to gather as much information as possible from reliable sources before drawing conclusions or making judgments. Seeking out reliable sources and conducting thorough research can help overcome this barrier.
Social and cultural influences can significantly impact an individual’s ability to think critically. These influences shape our beliefs, values, and perspectives, which can sometimes hinder our objectivity and open-mindedness. Conformity to societal norms and cultural expectations can limit our ability to question and challenge established ideas. Additionally, groupthink can occur when individuals prioritize maintaining harmony within a group over expressing dissenting opinions or engaging in critical analysis.
Fear of failure is a common barrier to critical thinking. Many individuals are afraid to take risks or explore new ideas because they fear making mistakes or being judged. This fear can prevent them from challenging their own beliefs and assumptions, and it can hinder their ability to think critically and objectively. Overcoming the fear of failure is essential for developing strong critical thinking skills.
Recognizing and addressing biases is a crucial step in overcoming barriers to critical thinking. Biases are inherent in human thinking and can greatly influence our decision-making process. By becoming aware of our biases, we can take steps to mitigate their impact and make more objective and rational judgments.
One effective way to recognize biases is to engage in self-reflection and introspection. This involves examining our own thoughts, beliefs, and assumptions to identify any potential biases that may be influencing our thinking. It requires a willingness to challenge our own perspectives and consider alternative viewpoints.
Another strategy for addressing biases is to seek out diverse perspectives. By actively seeking input from individuals with different backgrounds, experiences, and viewpoints, we can gain a more comprehensive understanding of a given issue. This can help us to identify and challenge our own biases, as well as broaden our perspectives and enhance our critical thinking skills.
Additionally, developing information literacy is essential in recognizing and addressing biases. This involves the ability to evaluate and analyze information critically, considering the source, credibility, and potential biases present. By developing strong information literacy skills, we can become more discerning consumers of information and avoid being swayed by biased or misleading content.
Finally, building self-confidence is crucial in addressing biases. Often, biases stem from a lack of confidence in our own abilities or fear of being wrong. By cultivating self-confidence and embracing a growth mindset, we can become more open to challenging our own biases and exploring new ideas and perspectives.
Seeking diverse perspectives is an essential aspect of critical thinking. It involves actively seeking out and considering different viewpoints, experiences, and opinions. By engaging with diverse perspectives, individuals can gain a broader understanding of a topic or issue and challenge their own biases and assumptions. This can lead to more well-rounded and informed decision-making.
One effective way to seek diverse perspectives is through engaging in open and respectful discussions with individuals from different backgrounds and cultures. This allows for the exchange of ideas and the exploration of different viewpoints. Additionally, reading books, articles, and research papers written by authors with diverse perspectives can provide valuable insights and broaden one’s understanding.
Another approach is to actively seek out diverse sources of information. This can include following diverse voices on social media, listening to podcasts or watching videos featuring diverse perspectives, and seeking out alternative news sources. By exposing oneself to a variety of viewpoints, individuals can challenge their own biases and develop a more nuanced understanding of complex issues.
It is important to approach seeking diverse perspectives with an open mind and a willingness to listen and learn. By actively seeking out and considering diverse perspectives, individuals can enhance their critical thinking skills and make more informed decisions.
Developing information literacy is crucial for enhancing critical thinking skills. Information literacy refers to the ability to identify, evaluate, and effectively use information from various sources. It involves understanding how information is organized, accessing information efficiently, and critically analyzing the credibility and relevance of the information. By developing information literacy, individuals can make informed decisions, solve problems effectively, and navigate the vast amount of information available in today’s digital age.
Building self-confidence is an essential aspect of overcoming barriers to critical thinking. When individuals lack confidence in their own abilities, they may hesitate to question assumptions or challenge prevailing beliefs. Developing a strong sense of self-assurance can empower individuals to think critically and express their ideas without fear of judgment.
One effective strategy for building self-confidence is to set achievable goals and celebrate small victories along the way. By breaking down larger tasks into manageable steps, individuals can build momentum and gain confidence in their ability to tackle challenges. Additionally, seeking feedback and learning from mistakes can help individuals grow and develop their critical thinking skills.
It is also important to surround oneself with a supportive network of individuals who encourage and uplift. Having a strong support system can provide reassurance and help individuals overcome self-doubt. By fostering a positive and nurturing environment, individuals can cultivate the self-confidence needed to engage in critical thinking and contribute valuable insights to discussions and decision-making processes.
Educational approaches play a crucial role in promoting critical thinking skills. By incorporating interactive and engaging activities, educators can create an environment that fosters curiosity and inquiry. Encouraging students to ask questions and explore different perspectives can enhance their analytical and problem-solving abilities. Additionally, integrating real-world examples and case studies can help students apply critical thinking skills to practical situations. By providing opportunities for collaborative learning and group discussions, students can learn from each other’s diverse perspectives and develop a broader understanding of complex issues.
Encouraging curiosity and inquiry is essential for developing critical thinking skills. By fostering a sense of wonder and encouraging individuals to ask questions, we can stimulate their curiosity and promote a deeper understanding of the world around them. This can be done through various strategies, such as:
Providing opportunities for exploration : Allowing individuals to explore different topics and subjects of interest can spark their curiosity and encourage them to ask questions.
Supporting independent research : Encouraging individuals to conduct their own research and investigate topics of interest can enhance their critical thinking skills and promote a deeper understanding.
Promoting open-ended discussions : Creating an environment where individuals feel comfortable sharing their thoughts and ideas can foster curiosity and encourage inquiry.
By implementing these strategies, we can create a learning environment that nurtures curiosity and inquiry, ultimately enhancing critical thinking skills.
Developing analytical and problem-solving skills is crucial for enhancing critical thinking abilities. These skills enable individuals to analyze complex situations, identify patterns, and generate creative solutions. Here are some strategies to develop and strengthen analytical and problem-solving skills:
Practice logical reasoning: Engage in activities that require logical thinking, such as puzzles, riddles, and brain teasers. This helps improve your ability to analyze information and make logical connections.
Seek feedback: Regularly seek feedback from others on your problem-solving approaches. This allows you to gain different perspectives and identify areas for improvement.
Learn from past experiences: Reflect on past problem-solving experiences and identify what worked well and what could have been done differently. This helps you learn from your mistakes and improve your problem-solving skills.
Collaborate with others: Collaborating with others on problem-solving tasks can enhance your ability to consider different viewpoints and generate innovative solutions.
Stay updated with industry trends: Keep yourself informed about the latest trends and developments in your field. This helps you stay ahead and adapt your problem-solving approaches accordingly.
Fostering a growth mindset is essential for developing critical thinking skills. It involves cultivating a belief that intelligence and abilities can be developed through dedication and hard work. By adopting a growth mindset, individuals are more likely to embrace challenges, persist in the face of setbacks, and see failures as opportunities for learning and growth.
Promoting critical thinking skills is essential in today’s fast-paced and complex world. It is a skill that allows individuals to analyze information, evaluate arguments, and make informed decisions. At Keynote Speaker James Taylor, we understand the importance of cultivating critical thinking skills in individuals and organizations. With our expertise in inspiring creative minds, we offer engaging workshops and keynote speeches that encourage participants to think critically and explore innovative solutions. Visit our website to learn more about how we can help you develop and enhance your critical thinking skills. Take the first step towards unlocking your full potential and join us on this exciting journey of discovery and growth.
In conclusion, identifying and overcoming barriers to critical thinking is essential for developing strong analytical skills and making informed decisions. By recognizing common obstacles such as cognitive biases, emotional influences, and social pressures, individuals can enhance their ability to think critically and objectively. Additionally, fostering a growth mindset and actively seeking diverse perspectives can help overcome these barriers and promote open-mindedness. It is crucial for individuals to continuously challenge their own assumptions and engage in reflective thinking to cultivate a culture of critical thinking in both personal and professional settings.
What is critical thinking.
Critical thinking is the ability to analyze and evaluate information objectively, using logical reasoning and evidence to form well-informed judgments and make sound decisions.
Critical thinking is important because it helps individuals develop their analytical and problem-solving skills, enhances their decision-making abilities, and enables them to think more independently and critically evaluate information and arguments.
Some common barriers to critical thinking include emotional and cognitive biases, lack of information, social and cultural influences, and fear of failure.
Biases can hinder critical thinking by influencing our judgment and decision-making processes, leading to the acceptance of flawed reasoning or the rejection of valid arguments and evidence.
To overcome barriers to critical thinking, it is important to recognize and address biases, seek diverse perspectives, develop information literacy skills, and build self-confidence in one’s ability to think critically.
Educators can promote critical thinking skills by using educational approaches that encourage active learning, fostering curiosity and inquiry, developing analytical and problem-solving skills, and fostering a growth mindset among students
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Critical thinking and problem-solving are essential skills that are closely intertwined. While critical thinking involves analyzing and evaluating information, problem-solving specifically focuses on identifying, selecting, and defending solutions to issues. However, there are challenges and problems associated with critical thinking that can impact our ability to solve problems effectively. We will go over this in more detail in the next section, but it will be helpful to have an overview while looking at problem solving with critical thinking.
" Barrier " by Hans-Jörg Aleff is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 .
Critical thinking plays a vital role in problem-solving by enabling us to approach issues systematically and thoughtfully. Here are some examples of how critical thinking can be applied to problem-solving:
To efficiently and effectively solve problems, it is essential to be organized and mindful of critical steps and strategies. Here is a problem-solving action checklist that incorporates critical thinking principles:
By assuming the attributes of a critical thinker—curiosity, reflection, knowledge-seeking, openness to change, probing, organization, and ethics—you can effectively tackle challenges and devise intelligent solutions. Critical thinking and problem-solving, when combined, create a powerful toolset for navigating the complexities of everyday life and achieving success.
Example \(\pageindex{1}\), example of critical thinking challenges for students in central valley, ca, cognitive biases.
Example 1: Imagine you are working on a group project about water conservation practices in rural Central Valley. You believe that traditional irrigation methods are the best because that’s what your family has always used. This is confirmation bias. You seek out information that supports traditional methods and ignore newer, potentially more efficient techniques like drip irrigation. Additionally, you may rely heavily on the first article you read about traditional methods (anchoring bias), or overestimate the importance of a recent drought news story without considering long-term data (availability heuristic). These biases can lead to flawed conclusions and hinder the adoption of better practices.
Example 2: Imagine you are working on a group project about urban water conservation practices in Fresno. You believe that traditional lawn watering schedules are the best because that’s what your neighborhood has always used. This is confirmation bias. You seek out information that supports traditional schedules and ignore newer, potentially more efficient techniques like xeriscaping or smart irrigation systems. Additionally, you may rely heavily on the first article you read about traditional methods (anchoring bias) or overestimate the importance of a recent heatwave news story without considering long-term climate data (availability heuristic). These biases can lead to flawed conclusions and hinder the adoption of better practices.
Example 1: You are a student advocating for better working conditions for undocumented immigrant workers in the agricultural sector. During a class debate, you become very passionate and emotional because this issue affects many people you know personally. Your emotions could cloud your judgment, leading you to dismiss valid points from the opposing side without rational consideration. This emotional influence can prevent you from engaging in a balanced and critical analysis of the situation.
Example 2: You are a student advocating for better housing conditions for low-income families in Fresno. During a class debate, you become very passionate and emotional because this issue affects many people you know personally. Your emotions could cloud your judgment, leading you to dismiss valid points from the opposing side without rational consideration. This emotional influence can prevent you from engaging in a balanced and critical analysis of the situation.
Example 1: You are assigned to write a research paper on the economic impacts of crop rotation in Central Valley agriculture. If you rely solely on a few articles from non-credible sources and do not access comprehensive agricultural studies, your paper may lack depth and accuracy. Without complete and accurate information, it is challenging to evaluate the benefits and drawbacks of crop rotation, potentially leading to misguided conclusions and recommendations.
Example 2: You are assigned to write a research paper on the economic impacts of gentrification in Fresno. If you rely solely on a few articles from non-credible sources and do not access comprehensive urban development studies, your paper may lack depth and accuracy. Without complete and accurate information, it is challenging to evaluate the benefits and drawbacks of gentrification, potentially leading to misguided conclusions and recommendations.
Example 1: You have grown up working on your family’s farm and believe you know everything there is to know about agriculture in the Central Valley. When tasked with creating a business plan for sustainable farming, you might overlook innovative practices and new research. Your overconfidence could prevent you from seeking input from experts or considering alternative methods, resulting in a plan that is less effective and sustainable than it could be.
Example 2: You have grown up in Fresno and believe you know everything there is to know about the city’s urban development. When tasked with creating a business plan for sustainable city planning, you might overlook innovative practices and new research. Your overconfidence could prevent you from seeking input from experts or considering alternative methods, resulting in a plan that is less effective and sustainable than it could be.
Understanding and addressing these problems of critical thinking is crucial for students, especially those growing up in the agricultural context of rural Central Valley, CA. By recognizing cognitive biases, managing emotional influences, seeking complete information, and maintaining a humble attitude towards their knowledge and abilities, students can enhance their critical thinking skills and make better-informed decisions in both their academic and personal lives.
Problem-solving with critical thinking for community college students.
Critical thinking plays a vital role in problem-solving by enabling us to approach issues systematically and thoughtfully. Here are some examples of how critical thinking can be applied to problem-solving in various life scenarios community college students might encounter:
Example 1: When you have a disagreement with a classmate over a group project, critical thinking helps you move past the initial frustration. By analyzing the situation, you can identify the root cause of the disagreement, consider each person’s perspective, and work towards a compromise that benefits the entire group. This approach helps maintain a positive working relationship and ensures the project progresses smoothly.
Example 2: When you have a disagreement with a classmate over a group project in your sociology class at Fresno City College, critical thinking helps you move past the initial frustration. By analyzing the situation, you can identify the root cause of the disagreement, consider each person’s perspective, and work towards a compromise that benefits the entire group. This approach helps maintain a positive working relationship and ensures the project progresses smoothly.
Example 1: As a member of the student government, you notice declining attendance at campus events. By applying critical thinking, you can evaluate past event attendance, gather student feedback, and analyze promotional strategies. This thorough analysis enables you to develop targeted marketing campaigns and event ideas that better engage the student body, leading to increased participation and a more vibrant campus community.
Example 2: As a member of the student government at Los Angeles City College, you notice declining attendance at campus events. By applying critical thinking, you can evaluate past event attendance, gather student feedback, and analyze promotional strategies. This thorough analysis enables you to develop targeted marketing campaigns and event ideas that better engage the student body, leading to increased participation and a more vibrant campus community.
Example 1: In a sociology class, you are assigned a research project on social issues affecting rural communities. Critical thinking allows you to evaluate various sources of information, identify key themes, and synthesize data to draw meaningful conclusions. By critically assessing the reliability of your sources and the relevance of your findings, you can create a well-supported and insightful research paper.
Example 2: In a sociology class at San Francisco City College, you are assigned a research project on social issues affecting urban communities. Critical thinking allows you to evaluate various sources of information, identify key themes, and synthesize data to draw meaningful conclusions. By critically assessing the reliability of your sources and the relevance of your findings, you can create a well-supported and insightful research paper.
Example 1: As a peer tutor in a biology class, you notice some students are struggling with the concept of cellular respiration. Using critical thinking, you can devise a series of guiding questions and hands-on activities that help students break down the process into manageable parts. This method encourages active learning and helps students build a deeper understanding of the material.
Example 2: As a peer tutor in a biology class at Fresno City College, you notice some students are struggling with the concept of cellular respiration. Using critical thinking, you can devise a series of guiding questions and hands-on activities that help students break down the process into manageable parts. This method encourages active learning and helps students build a deeper understanding of the material.
Example 1: When preparing for a job interview for a part-time position at a local business, critical thinking helps you reflect on your previous work experiences and skills. By anticipating potential interview questions, you can formulate thoughtful responses that highlight your strengths and demonstrate how you can contribute to the company. This preparation increases your confidence and effectiveness in presenting yourself as the ideal candidate.
Example 2: When preparing for a job interview for a part-time position at a local business in Los Angeles, critical thinking helps you reflect on your previous work experiences and skills. By anticipating potential interview questions, you can formulate thoughtful responses that highlight your strengths and demonstrate how you can contribute to the company. This preparation increases your confidence and effectiveness in presenting yourself as the ideal candidate.
Example 1: Balancing tuition, textbooks, and living expenses can be challenging. Critical thinking enables you to create a detailed budget that accounts for all sources of income and expenses. By analyzing your spending habits and identifying areas where you can cut costs or increase savings, you can develop a financial plan that ensures you can afford your education and maintain your lifestyle.
Example 2: Balancing tuition, textbooks, and living expenses in San Francisco can be challenging. Critical thinking enables you to create a detailed budget that accounts for all sources of income and expenses. By analyzing your spending habits and identifying areas where you can cut costs or increase savings, you can develop a financial plan that ensures you can afford your education and maintain your lifestyle.
By applying critical thinking to problem-solving in various aspects of life, community college students can navigate challenges more effectively and make informed decisions. Whether dealing with interpersonal conflicts, organizational issues, academic projects, teaching and learning, job interviews, or financial planning, critical thinking provides a structured approach to achieving successful outcomes.
The content above was assisted by ChatGPT in outlining and organizing information. The final material was curated, edited, authored, and arranged through human creativity, originality, and subject expertise of the Coalinga College English Department and the Coalinga College Library Learning Resource Center and is therefore under the CC BY NC SA license when applicable. To see resources on AI and copyright please see the United States Copyright Office 2023 Statement and the following case study on using AI assistance but curating and creating with human originality and creativity.
Images without specific attribution were generated with the assistance of ChatGPT 2024 and are not subject to any copyright restrictions, in accordance with the United States Copyright Office 2023 Statement .
The above section was remixed from the following Open Educational Resources: Introductory Composition, Basic Reading and Writing by Lumen, Module 1: Success Skills, Section 1.3 Critical Thinking by Lumen Learning , under CC BY NC SA .
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Critical thinking is a widely accepted educational goal. Its definition is contested, but the competing definitions can be understood as differing conceptions of the same basic concept: careful thinking directed to a goal. Conceptions differ with respect to the scope of such thinking, the type of goal, the criteria and norms for thinking carefully, and the thinking components on which they focus. Its adoption as an educational goal has been recommended on the basis of respect for students’ autonomy and preparing students for success in life and for democratic citizenship. “Critical thinkers” have the dispositions and abilities that lead them to think critically when appropriate. The abilities can be identified directly; the dispositions indirectly, by considering what factors contribute to or impede exercise of the abilities. Standardized tests have been developed to assess the degree to which a person possesses such dispositions and abilities. Educational intervention has been shown experimentally to improve them, particularly when it includes dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring. Controversies have arisen over the generalizability of critical thinking across domains, over alleged bias in critical thinking theories and instruction, and over the relationship of critical thinking to other types of thinking.
2.2 dewey’s other examples, 2.3 further examples, 2.4 non-examples, 3. the definition of critical thinking, 4. its value, 5. the process of thinking critically, 6. components of the process, 7. contributory dispositions and abilities, 8.1 initiating dispositions, 8.2 internal dispositions, 9. critical thinking abilities, 10. required knowledge, 11. educational methods, 12.1 the generalizability of critical thinking, 12.2 bias in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, 12.3 relationship of critical thinking to other types of thinking, other internet resources, related entries.
Use of the term ‘critical thinking’ to describe an educational goal goes back to the American philosopher John Dewey (1910), who more commonly called it ‘reflective thinking’. He defined it as
active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it, and the further conclusions to which it tends. (Dewey 1910: 6; 1933: 9)
and identified a habit of such consideration with a scientific attitude of mind. His lengthy quotations of Francis Bacon, John Locke, and John Stuart Mill indicate that he was not the first person to propose development of a scientific attitude of mind as an educational goal.
In the 1930s, many of the schools that participated in the Eight-Year Study of the Progressive Education Association (Aikin 1942) adopted critical thinking as an educational goal, for whose achievement the study’s Evaluation Staff developed tests (Smith, Tyler, & Evaluation Staff 1942). Glaser (1941) showed experimentally that it was possible to improve the critical thinking of high school students. Bloom’s influential taxonomy of cognitive educational objectives (Bloom et al. 1956) incorporated critical thinking abilities. Ennis (1962) proposed 12 aspects of critical thinking as a basis for research on the teaching and evaluation of critical thinking ability.
Since 1980, an annual international conference in California on critical thinking and educational reform has attracted tens of thousands of educators from all levels of education and from many parts of the world. Also since 1980, the state university system in California has required all undergraduate students to take a critical thinking course. Since 1983, the Association for Informal Logic and Critical Thinking has sponsored sessions in conjunction with the divisional meetings of the American Philosophical Association (APA). In 1987, the APA’s Committee on Pre-College Philosophy commissioned a consensus statement on critical thinking for purposes of educational assessment and instruction (Facione 1990a). Researchers have developed standardized tests of critical thinking abilities and dispositions; for details, see the Supplement on Assessment . Educational jurisdictions around the world now include critical thinking in guidelines for curriculum and assessment.
For details on this history, see the Supplement on History .
Before considering the definition of critical thinking, it will be helpful to have in mind some examples of critical thinking, as well as some examples of kinds of thinking that would apparently not count as critical thinking.
Dewey (1910: 68–71; 1933: 91–94) takes as paradigms of reflective thinking three class papers of students in which they describe their thinking. The examples range from the everyday to the scientific.
Transit : “The other day, when I was down town on 16th Street, a clock caught my eye. I saw that the hands pointed to 12:20. This suggested that I had an engagement at 124th Street, at one o’clock. I reasoned that as it had taken me an hour to come down on a surface car, I should probably be twenty minutes late if I returned the same way. I might save twenty minutes by a subway express. But was there a station near? If not, I might lose more than twenty minutes in looking for one. Then I thought of the elevated, and I saw there was such a line within two blocks. But where was the station? If it were several blocks above or below the street I was on, I should lose time instead of gaining it. My mind went back to the subway express as quicker than the elevated; furthermore, I remembered that it went nearer than the elevated to the part of 124th Street I wished to reach, so that time would be saved at the end of the journey. I concluded in favor of the subway, and reached my destination by one o’clock.” (Dewey 1910: 68–69; 1933: 91–92)
Ferryboat : “Projecting nearly horizontally from the upper deck of the ferryboat on which I daily cross the river is a long white pole, having a gilded ball at its tip. It suggested a flagpole when I first saw it; its color, shape, and gilded ball agreed with this idea, and these reasons seemed to justify me in this belief. But soon difficulties presented themselves. The pole was nearly horizontal, an unusual position for a flagpole; in the next place, there was no pulley, ring, or cord by which to attach a flag; finally, there were elsewhere on the boat two vertical staffs from which flags were occasionally flown. It seemed probable that the pole was not there for flag-flying.
“I then tried to imagine all possible purposes of the pole, and to consider for which of these it was best suited: (a) Possibly it was an ornament. But as all the ferryboats and even the tugboats carried poles, this hypothesis was rejected. (b) Possibly it was the terminal of a wireless telegraph. But the same considerations made this improbable. Besides, the more natural place for such a terminal would be the highest part of the boat, on top of the pilot house. (c) Its purpose might be to point out the direction in which the boat is moving.
“In support of this conclusion, I discovered that the pole was lower than the pilot house, so that the steersman could easily see it. Moreover, the tip was enough higher than the base, so that, from the pilot’s position, it must appear to project far out in front of the boat. Moreover, the pilot being near the front of the boat, he would need some such guide as to its direction. Tugboats would also need poles for such a purpose. This hypothesis was so much more probable than the others that I accepted it. I formed the conclusion that the pole was set up for the purpose of showing the pilot the direction in which the boat pointed, to enable him to steer correctly.” (Dewey 1910: 69–70; 1933: 92–93)
Bubbles : “In washing tumblers in hot soapsuds and placing them mouth downward on a plate, bubbles appeared on the outside of the mouth of the tumblers and then went inside. Why? The presence of bubbles suggests air, which I note must come from inside the tumbler. I see that the soapy water on the plate prevents escape of the air save as it may be caught in bubbles. But why should air leave the tumbler? There was no substance entering to force it out. It must have expanded. It expands by increase of heat, or by decrease of pressure, or both. Could the air have become heated after the tumbler was taken from the hot suds? Clearly not the air that was already entangled in the water. If heated air was the cause, cold air must have entered in transferring the tumblers from the suds to the plate. I test to see if this supposition is true by taking several more tumblers out. Some I shake so as to make sure of entrapping cold air in them. Some I take out holding mouth downward in order to prevent cold air from entering. Bubbles appear on the outside of every one of the former and on none of the latter. I must be right in my inference. Air from the outside must have been expanded by the heat of the tumbler, which explains the appearance of the bubbles on the outside. But why do they then go inside? Cold contracts. The tumbler cooled and also the air inside it. Tension was removed, and hence bubbles appeared inside. To be sure of this, I test by placing a cup of ice on the tumbler while the bubbles are still forming outside. They soon reverse” (Dewey 1910: 70–71; 1933: 93–94).
Dewey (1910, 1933) sprinkles his book with other examples of critical thinking. We will refer to the following.
Weather : A man on a walk notices that it has suddenly become cool, thinks that it is probably going to rain, looks up and sees a dark cloud obscuring the sun, and quickens his steps (1910: 6–10; 1933: 9–13).
Disorder : A man finds his rooms on his return to them in disorder with his belongings thrown about, thinks at first of burglary as an explanation, then thinks of mischievous children as being an alternative explanation, then looks to see whether valuables are missing, and discovers that they are (1910: 82–83; 1933: 166–168).
Typhoid : A physician diagnosing a patient whose conspicuous symptoms suggest typhoid avoids drawing a conclusion until more data are gathered by questioning the patient and by making tests (1910: 85–86; 1933: 170).
Blur : A moving blur catches our eye in the distance, we ask ourselves whether it is a cloud of whirling dust or a tree moving its branches or a man signaling to us, we think of other traits that should be found on each of those possibilities, and we look and see if those traits are found (1910: 102, 108; 1933: 121, 133).
Suction pump : In thinking about the suction pump, the scientist first notes that it will draw water only to a maximum height of 33 feet at sea level and to a lesser maximum height at higher elevations, selects for attention the differing atmospheric pressure at these elevations, sets up experiments in which the air is removed from a vessel containing water (when suction no longer works) and in which the weight of air at various levels is calculated, compares the results of reasoning about the height to which a given weight of air will allow a suction pump to raise water with the observed maximum height at different elevations, and finally assimilates the suction pump to such apparently different phenomena as the siphon and the rising of a balloon (1910: 150–153; 1933: 195–198).
Diamond : A passenger in a car driving in a diamond lane reserved for vehicles with at least one passenger notices that the diamond marks on the pavement are far apart in some places and close together in others. Why? The driver suggests that the reason may be that the diamond marks are not needed where there is a solid double line separating the diamond lane from the adjoining lane, but are needed when there is a dotted single line permitting crossing into the diamond lane. Further observation confirms that the diamonds are close together when a dotted line separates the diamond lane from its neighbour, but otherwise far apart.
Rash : A woman suddenly develops a very itchy red rash on her throat and upper chest. She recently noticed a mark on the back of her right hand, but was not sure whether the mark was a rash or a scrape. She lies down in bed and thinks about what might be causing the rash and what to do about it. About two weeks before, she began taking blood pressure medication that contained a sulfa drug, and the pharmacist had warned her, in view of a previous allergic reaction to a medication containing a sulfa drug, to be on the alert for an allergic reaction; however, she had been taking the medication for two weeks with no such effect. The day before, she began using a new cream on her neck and upper chest; against the new cream as the cause was mark on the back of her hand, which had not been exposed to the cream. She began taking probiotics about a month before. She also recently started new eye drops, but she supposed that manufacturers of eye drops would be careful not to include allergy-causing components in the medication. The rash might be a heat rash, since she recently was sweating profusely from her upper body. Since she is about to go away on a short vacation, where she would not have access to her usual physician, she decides to keep taking the probiotics and using the new eye drops but to discontinue the blood pressure medication and to switch back to the old cream for her neck and upper chest. She forms a plan to consult her regular physician on her return about the blood pressure medication.
Candidate : Although Dewey included no examples of thinking directed at appraising the arguments of others, such thinking has come to be considered a kind of critical thinking. We find an example of such thinking in the performance task on the Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA+), which its sponsoring organization describes as
a performance-based assessment that provides a measure of an institution’s contribution to the development of critical-thinking and written communication skills of its students. (Council for Aid to Education 2017)
A sample task posted on its website requires the test-taker to write a report for public distribution evaluating a fictional candidate’s policy proposals and their supporting arguments, using supplied background documents, with a recommendation on whether to endorse the candidate.
Immediate acceptance of an idea that suggests itself as a solution to a problem (e.g., a possible explanation of an event or phenomenon, an action that seems likely to produce a desired result) is “uncritical thinking, the minimum of reflection” (Dewey 1910: 13). On-going suspension of judgment in the light of doubt about a possible solution is not critical thinking (Dewey 1910: 108). Critique driven by a dogmatically held political or religious ideology is not critical thinking; thus Paulo Freire (1968 [1970]) is using the term (e.g., at 1970: 71, 81, 100, 146) in a more politically freighted sense that includes not only reflection but also revolutionary action against oppression. Derivation of a conclusion from given data using an algorithm is not critical thinking.
What is critical thinking? There are many definitions. Ennis (2016) lists 14 philosophically oriented scholarly definitions and three dictionary definitions. Following Rawls (1971), who distinguished his conception of justice from a utilitarian conception but regarded them as rival conceptions of the same concept, Ennis maintains that the 17 definitions are different conceptions of the same concept. Rawls articulated the shared concept of justice as
a characteristic set of principles for assigning basic rights and duties and for determining… the proper distribution of the benefits and burdens of social cooperation. (Rawls 1971: 5)
Bailin et al. (1999b) claim that, if one considers what sorts of thinking an educator would take not to be critical thinking and what sorts to be critical thinking, one can conclude that educators typically understand critical thinking to have at least three features.
One could sum up the core concept that involves these three features by saying that critical thinking is careful goal-directed thinking. This core concept seems to apply to all the examples of critical thinking described in the previous section. As for the non-examples, their exclusion depends on construing careful thinking as excluding jumping immediately to conclusions, suspending judgment no matter how strong the evidence, reasoning from an unquestioned ideological or religious perspective, and routinely using an algorithm to answer a question.
If the core of critical thinking is careful goal-directed thinking, conceptions of it can vary according to its presumed scope, its presumed goal, one’s criteria and threshold for being careful, and the thinking component on which one focuses. As to its scope, some conceptions (e.g., Dewey 1910, 1933) restrict it to constructive thinking on the basis of one’s own observations and experiments, others (e.g., Ennis 1962; Fisher & Scriven 1997; Johnson 1992) to appraisal of the products of such thinking. Ennis (1991) and Bailin et al. (1999b) take it to cover both construction and appraisal. As to its goal, some conceptions restrict it to forming a judgment (Dewey 1910, 1933; Lipman 1987; Facione 1990a). Others allow for actions as well as beliefs as the end point of a process of critical thinking (Ennis 1991; Bailin et al. 1999b). As to the criteria and threshold for being careful, definitions vary in the term used to indicate that critical thinking satisfies certain norms: “intellectually disciplined” (Scriven & Paul 1987), “reasonable” (Ennis 1991), “skillful” (Lipman 1987), “skilled” (Fisher & Scriven 1997), “careful” (Bailin & Battersby 2009). Some definitions specify these norms, referring variously to “consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” (Dewey 1910, 1933); “the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning” (Glaser 1941); “conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication” (Scriven & Paul 1987); the requirement that “it is sensitive to context, relies on criteria, and is self-correcting” (Lipman 1987); “evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations” (Facione 1990a); and “plus-minus considerations of the product in terms of appropriate standards (or criteria)” (Johnson 1992). Stanovich and Stanovich (2010) propose to ground the concept of critical thinking in the concept of rationality, which they understand as combining epistemic rationality (fitting one’s beliefs to the world) and instrumental rationality (optimizing goal fulfillment); a critical thinker, in their view, is someone with “a propensity to override suboptimal responses from the autonomous mind” (2010: 227). These variant specifications of norms for critical thinking are not necessarily incompatible with one another, and in any case presuppose the core notion of thinking carefully. As to the thinking component singled out, some definitions focus on suspension of judgment during the thinking (Dewey 1910; McPeck 1981), others on inquiry while judgment is suspended (Bailin & Battersby 2009, 2021), others on the resulting judgment (Facione 1990a), and still others on responsiveness to reasons (Siegel 1988). Kuhn (2019) takes critical thinking to be more a dialogic practice of advancing and responding to arguments than an individual ability.
In educational contexts, a definition of critical thinking is a “programmatic definition” (Scheffler 1960: 19). It expresses a practical program for achieving an educational goal. For this purpose, a one-sentence formulaic definition is much less useful than articulation of a critical thinking process, with criteria and standards for the kinds of thinking that the process may involve. The real educational goal is recognition, adoption and implementation by students of those criteria and standards. That adoption and implementation in turn consists in acquiring the knowledge, abilities and dispositions of a critical thinker.
Conceptions of critical thinking generally do not include moral integrity as part of the concept. Dewey, for example, took critical thinking to be the ultimate intellectual goal of education, but distinguished it from the development of social cooperation among school children, which he took to be the central moral goal. Ennis (1996, 2011) added to his previous list of critical thinking dispositions a group of dispositions to care about the dignity and worth of every person, which he described as a “correlative” (1996) disposition without which critical thinking would be less valuable and perhaps harmful. An educational program that aimed at developing critical thinking but not the correlative disposition to care about the dignity and worth of every person, he asserted, “would be deficient and perhaps dangerous” (Ennis 1996: 172).
Dewey thought that education for reflective thinking would be of value to both the individual and society; recognition in educational practice of the kinship to the scientific attitude of children’s native curiosity, fertile imagination and love of experimental inquiry “would make for individual happiness and the reduction of social waste” (Dewey 1910: iii). Schools participating in the Eight-Year Study took development of the habit of reflective thinking and skill in solving problems as a means to leading young people to understand, appreciate and live the democratic way of life characteristic of the United States (Aikin 1942: 17–18, 81). Harvey Siegel (1988: 55–61) has offered four considerations in support of adopting critical thinking as an educational ideal. (1) Respect for persons requires that schools and teachers honour students’ demands for reasons and explanations, deal with students honestly, and recognize the need to confront students’ independent judgment; these requirements concern the manner in which teachers treat students. (2) Education has the task of preparing children to be successful adults, a task that requires development of their self-sufficiency. (3) Education should initiate children into the rational traditions in such fields as history, science and mathematics. (4) Education should prepare children to become democratic citizens, which requires reasoned procedures and critical talents and attitudes. To supplement these considerations, Siegel (1988: 62–90) responds to two objections: the ideology objection that adoption of any educational ideal requires a prior ideological commitment and the indoctrination objection that cultivation of critical thinking cannot escape being a form of indoctrination.
Despite the diversity of our 11 examples, one can recognize a common pattern. Dewey analyzed it as consisting of five phases:
The process of reflective thinking consisting of these phases would be preceded by a perplexed, troubled or confused situation and followed by a cleared-up, unified, resolved situation (Dewey 1933: 106). The term ‘phases’ replaced the term ‘steps’ (Dewey 1910: 72), thus removing the earlier suggestion of an invariant sequence. Variants of the above analysis appeared in (Dewey 1916: 177) and (Dewey 1938: 101–119).
The variant formulations indicate the difficulty of giving a single logical analysis of such a varied process. The process of critical thinking may have a spiral pattern, with the problem being redefined in the light of obstacles to solving it as originally formulated. For example, the person in Transit might have concluded that getting to the appointment at the scheduled time was impossible and have reformulated the problem as that of rescheduling the appointment for a mutually convenient time. Further, defining a problem does not always follow after or lead immediately to an idea of a suggested solution. Nor should it do so, as Dewey himself recognized in describing the physician in Typhoid as avoiding any strong preference for this or that conclusion before getting further information (Dewey 1910: 85; 1933: 170). People with a hypothesis in mind, even one to which they have a very weak commitment, have a so-called “confirmation bias” (Nickerson 1998): they are likely to pay attention to evidence that confirms the hypothesis and to ignore evidence that counts against it or for some competing hypothesis. Detectives, intelligence agencies, and investigators of airplane accidents are well advised to gather relevant evidence systematically and to postpone even tentative adoption of an explanatory hypothesis until the collected evidence rules out with the appropriate degree of certainty all but one explanation. Dewey’s analysis of the critical thinking process can be faulted as well for requiring acceptance or rejection of a possible solution to a defined problem, with no allowance for deciding in the light of the available evidence to suspend judgment. Further, given the great variety of kinds of problems for which reflection is appropriate, there is likely to be variation in its component events. Perhaps the best way to conceptualize the critical thinking process is as a checklist whose component events can occur in a variety of orders, selectively, and more than once. These component events might include (1) noticing a difficulty, (2) defining the problem, (3) dividing the problem into manageable sub-problems, (4) formulating a variety of possible solutions to the problem or sub-problem, (5) determining what evidence is relevant to deciding among possible solutions to the problem or sub-problem, (6) devising a plan of systematic observation or experiment that will uncover the relevant evidence, (7) carrying out the plan of systematic observation or experimentation, (8) noting the results of the systematic observation or experiment, (9) gathering relevant testimony and information from others, (10) judging the credibility of testimony and information gathered from others, (11) drawing conclusions from gathered evidence and accepted testimony, and (12) accepting a solution that the evidence adequately supports (cf. Hitchcock 2017: 485).
Checklist conceptions of the process of critical thinking are open to the objection that they are too mechanical and procedural to fit the multi-dimensional and emotionally charged issues for which critical thinking is urgently needed (Paul 1984). For such issues, a more dialectical process is advocated, in which competing relevant world views are identified, their implications explored, and some sort of creative synthesis attempted.
If one considers the critical thinking process illustrated by the 11 examples, one can identify distinct kinds of mental acts and mental states that form part of it. To distinguish, label and briefly characterize these components is a useful preliminary to identifying abilities, skills, dispositions, attitudes, habits and the like that contribute causally to thinking critically. Identifying such abilities and habits is in turn a useful preliminary to setting educational goals. Setting the goals is in its turn a useful preliminary to designing strategies for helping learners to achieve the goals and to designing ways of measuring the extent to which learners have done so. Such measures provide both feedback to learners on their achievement and a basis for experimental research on the effectiveness of various strategies for educating people to think critically. Let us begin, then, by distinguishing the kinds of mental acts and mental events that can occur in a critical thinking process.
By definition, a person who does something voluntarily is both willing and able to do that thing at that time. Both the willingness and the ability contribute causally to the person’s action, in the sense that the voluntary action would not occur if either (or both) of these were lacking. For example, suppose that one is standing with one’s arms at one’s sides and one voluntarily lifts one’s right arm to an extended horizontal position. One would not do so if one were unable to lift one’s arm, if for example one’s right side was paralyzed as the result of a stroke. Nor would one do so if one were unwilling to lift one’s arm, if for example one were participating in a street demonstration at which a white supremacist was urging the crowd to lift their right arm in a Nazi salute and one were unwilling to express support in this way for the racist Nazi ideology. The same analysis applies to a voluntary mental process of thinking critically. It requires both willingness and ability to think critically, including willingness and ability to perform each of the mental acts that compose the process and to coordinate those acts in a sequence that is directed at resolving the initiating perplexity.
Consider willingness first. We can identify causal contributors to willingness to think critically by considering factors that would cause a person who was able to think critically about an issue nevertheless not to do so (Hamby 2014). For each factor, the opposite condition thus contributes causally to willingness to think critically on a particular occasion. For example, people who habitually jump to conclusions without considering alternatives will not think critically about issues that arise, even if they have the required abilities. The contrary condition of willingness to suspend judgment is thus a causal contributor to thinking critically.
Now consider ability. In contrast to the ability to move one’s arm, which can be completely absent because a stroke has left the arm paralyzed, the ability to think critically is a developed ability, whose absence is not a complete absence of ability to think but absence of ability to think well. We can identify the ability to think well directly, in terms of the norms and standards for good thinking. In general, to be able do well the thinking activities that can be components of a critical thinking process, one needs to know the concepts and principles that characterize their good performance, to recognize in particular cases that the concepts and principles apply, and to apply them. The knowledge, recognition and application may be procedural rather than declarative. It may be domain-specific rather than widely applicable, and in either case may need subject-matter knowledge, sometimes of a deep kind.
Reflections of the sort illustrated by the previous two paragraphs have led scholars to identify the knowledge, abilities and dispositions of a “critical thinker”, i.e., someone who thinks critically whenever it is appropriate to do so. We turn now to these three types of causal contributors to thinking critically. We start with dispositions, since arguably these are the most powerful contributors to being a critical thinker, can be fostered at an early stage of a child’s development, and are susceptible to general improvement (Glaser 1941: 175)
Educational researchers use the term ‘dispositions’ broadly for the habits of mind and attitudes that contribute causally to being a critical thinker. Some writers (e.g., Paul & Elder 2006; Hamby 2014; Bailin & Battersby 2016a) propose to use the term ‘virtues’ for this dimension of a critical thinker. The virtues in question, although they are virtues of character, concern the person’s ways of thinking rather than the person’s ways of behaving towards others. They are not moral virtues but intellectual virtues, of the sort articulated by Zagzebski (1996) and discussed by Turri, Alfano, and Greco (2017).
On a realistic conception, thinking dispositions or intellectual virtues are real properties of thinkers. They are general tendencies, propensities, or inclinations to think in particular ways in particular circumstances, and can be genuinely explanatory (Siegel 1999). Sceptics argue that there is no evidence for a specific mental basis for the habits of mind that contribute to thinking critically, and that it is pedagogically misleading to posit such a basis (Bailin et al. 1999a). Whatever their status, critical thinking dispositions need motivation for their initial formation in a child—motivation that may be external or internal. As children develop, the force of habit will gradually become important in sustaining the disposition (Nieto & Valenzuela 2012). Mere force of habit, however, is unlikely to sustain critical thinking dispositions. Critical thinkers must value and enjoy using their knowledge and abilities to think things through for themselves. They must be committed to, and lovers of, inquiry.
A person may have a critical thinking disposition with respect to only some kinds of issues. For example, one could be open-minded about scientific issues but not about religious issues. Similarly, one could be confident in one’s ability to reason about the theological implications of the existence of evil in the world but not in one’s ability to reason about the best design for a guided ballistic missile.
Facione (1990a: 25) divides “affective dispositions” of critical thinking into approaches to life and living in general and approaches to specific issues, questions or problems. Adapting this distinction, one can usefully divide critical thinking dispositions into initiating dispositions (those that contribute causally to starting to think critically about an issue) and internal dispositions (those that contribute causally to doing a good job of thinking critically once one has started). The two categories are not mutually exclusive. For example, open-mindedness, in the sense of willingness to consider alternative points of view to one’s own, is both an initiating and an internal disposition.
Using the strategy of considering factors that would block people with the ability to think critically from doing so, we can identify as initiating dispositions for thinking critically attentiveness, a habit of inquiry, self-confidence, courage, open-mindedness, willingness to suspend judgment, trust in reason, wanting evidence for one’s beliefs, and seeking the truth. We consider briefly what each of these dispositions amounts to, in each case citing sources that acknowledge them.
Some of the initiating dispositions, such as open-mindedness and willingness to suspend judgment, are also internal critical thinking dispositions, in the sense of mental habits or attitudes that contribute causally to doing a good job of critical thinking once one starts the process. But there are many other internal critical thinking dispositions. Some of them are parasitic on one’s conception of good thinking. For example, it is constitutive of good thinking about an issue to formulate the issue clearly and to maintain focus on it. For this purpose, one needs not only the corresponding ability but also the corresponding disposition. Ennis (1991: 8) describes it as the disposition “to determine and maintain focus on the conclusion or question”, Facione (1990a: 25) as “clarity in stating the question or concern”. Other internal dispositions are motivators to continue or adjust the critical thinking process, such as willingness to persist in a complex task and willingness to abandon nonproductive strategies in an attempt to self-correct (Halpern 1998: 452). For a list of identified internal critical thinking dispositions, see the Supplement on Internal Critical Thinking Dispositions .
Some theorists postulate skills, i.e., acquired abilities, as operative in critical thinking. It is not obvious, however, that a good mental act is the exercise of a generic acquired skill. Inferring an expected time of arrival, as in Transit , has some generic components but also uses non-generic subject-matter knowledge. Bailin et al. (1999a) argue against viewing critical thinking skills as generic and discrete, on the ground that skilled performance at a critical thinking task cannot be separated from knowledge of concepts and from domain-specific principles of good thinking. Talk of skills, they concede, is unproblematic if it means merely that a person with critical thinking skills is capable of intelligent performance.
Despite such scepticism, theorists of critical thinking have listed as general contributors to critical thinking what they variously call abilities (Glaser 1941; Ennis 1962, 1991), skills (Facione 1990a; Halpern 1998) or competencies (Fisher & Scriven 1997). Amalgamating these lists would produce a confusing and chaotic cornucopia of more than 50 possible educational objectives, with only partial overlap among them. It makes sense instead to try to understand the reasons for the multiplicity and diversity, and to make a selection according to one’s own reasons for singling out abilities to be developed in a critical thinking curriculum. Two reasons for diversity among lists of critical thinking abilities are the underlying conception of critical thinking and the envisaged educational level. Appraisal-only conceptions, for example, involve a different suite of abilities than constructive-only conceptions. Some lists, such as those in (Glaser 1941), are put forward as educational objectives for secondary school students, whereas others are proposed as objectives for college students (e.g., Facione 1990a).
The abilities described in the remaining paragraphs of this section emerge from reflection on the general abilities needed to do well the thinking activities identified in section 6 as components of the critical thinking process described in section 5 . The derivation of each collection of abilities is accompanied by citation of sources that list such abilities and of standardized tests that claim to test them.
Observational abilities : Careful and accurate observation sometimes requires specialist expertise and practice, as in the case of observing birds and observing accident scenes. However, there are general abilities of noticing what one’s senses are picking up from one’s environment and of being able to articulate clearly and accurately to oneself and others what one has observed. It helps in exercising them to be able to recognize and take into account factors that make one’s observation less trustworthy, such as prior framing of the situation, inadequate time, deficient senses, poor observation conditions, and the like. It helps as well to be skilled at taking steps to make one’s observation more trustworthy, such as moving closer to get a better look, measuring something three times and taking the average, and checking what one thinks one is observing with someone else who is in a good position to observe it. It also helps to be skilled at recognizing respects in which one’s report of one’s observation involves inference rather than direct observation, so that one can then consider whether the inference is justified. These abilities come into play as well when one thinks about whether and with what degree of confidence to accept an observation report, for example in the study of history or in a criminal investigation or in assessing news reports. Observational abilities show up in some lists of critical thinking abilities (Ennis 1962: 90; Facione 1990a: 16; Ennis 1991: 9). There are items testing a person’s ability to judge the credibility of observation reports in the Cornell Critical Thinking Tests, Levels X and Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005). Norris and King (1983, 1985, 1990a, 1990b) is a test of ability to appraise observation reports.
Emotional abilities : The emotions that drive a critical thinking process are perplexity or puzzlement, a wish to resolve it, and satisfaction at achieving the desired resolution. Children experience these emotions at an early age, without being trained to do so. Education that takes critical thinking as a goal needs only to channel these emotions and to make sure not to stifle them. Collaborative critical thinking benefits from ability to recognize one’s own and others’ emotional commitments and reactions.
Questioning abilities : A critical thinking process needs transformation of an inchoate sense of perplexity into a clear question. Formulating a question well requires not building in questionable assumptions, not prejudging the issue, and using language that in context is unambiguous and precise enough (Ennis 1962: 97; 1991: 9).
Imaginative abilities : Thinking directed at finding the correct causal explanation of a general phenomenon or particular event requires an ability to imagine possible explanations. Thinking about what policy or plan of action to adopt requires generation of options and consideration of possible consequences of each option. Domain knowledge is required for such creative activity, but a general ability to imagine alternatives is helpful and can be nurtured so as to become easier, quicker, more extensive, and deeper (Dewey 1910: 34–39; 1933: 40–47). Facione (1990a) and Halpern (1998) include the ability to imagine alternatives as a critical thinking ability.
Inferential abilities : The ability to draw conclusions from given information, and to recognize with what degree of certainty one’s own or others’ conclusions follow, is universally recognized as a general critical thinking ability. All 11 examples in section 2 of this article include inferences, some from hypotheses or options (as in Transit , Ferryboat and Disorder ), others from something observed (as in Weather and Rash ). None of these inferences is formally valid. Rather, they are licensed by general, sometimes qualified substantive rules of inference (Toulmin 1958) that rest on domain knowledge—that a bus trip takes about the same time in each direction, that the terminal of a wireless telegraph would be located on the highest possible place, that sudden cooling is often followed by rain, that an allergic reaction to a sulfa drug generally shows up soon after one starts taking it. It is a matter of controversy to what extent the specialized ability to deduce conclusions from premisses using formal rules of inference is needed for critical thinking. Dewey (1933) locates logical forms in setting out the products of reflection rather than in the process of reflection. Ennis (1981a), on the other hand, maintains that a liberally-educated person should have the following abilities: to translate natural-language statements into statements using the standard logical operators, to use appropriately the language of necessary and sufficient conditions, to deal with argument forms and arguments containing symbols, to determine whether in virtue of an argument’s form its conclusion follows necessarily from its premisses, to reason with logically complex propositions, and to apply the rules and procedures of deductive logic. Inferential abilities are recognized as critical thinking abilities by Glaser (1941: 6), Facione (1990a: 9), Ennis (1991: 9), Fisher & Scriven (1997: 99, 111), and Halpern (1998: 452). Items testing inferential abilities constitute two of the five subtests of the Watson Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (Watson & Glaser 1980a, 1980b, 1994), two of the four sections in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level X (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005), three of the seven sections in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005), 11 of the 34 items on Forms A and B of the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (Facione 1990b, 1992), and a high but variable proportion of the 25 selected-response questions in the Collegiate Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017).
Experimenting abilities : Knowing how to design and execute an experiment is important not just in scientific research but also in everyday life, as in Rash . Dewey devoted a whole chapter of his How We Think (1910: 145–156; 1933: 190–202) to the superiority of experimentation over observation in advancing knowledge. Experimenting abilities come into play at one remove in appraising reports of scientific studies. Skill in designing and executing experiments includes the acknowledged abilities to appraise evidence (Glaser 1941: 6), to carry out experiments and to apply appropriate statistical inference techniques (Facione 1990a: 9), to judge inductions to an explanatory hypothesis (Ennis 1991: 9), and to recognize the need for an adequately large sample size (Halpern 1998). The Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005) includes four items (out of 52) on experimental design. The Collegiate Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017) makes room for appraisal of study design in both its performance task and its selected-response questions.
Consulting abilities : Skill at consulting sources of information comes into play when one seeks information to help resolve a problem, as in Candidate . Ability to find and appraise information includes ability to gather and marshal pertinent information (Glaser 1941: 6), to judge whether a statement made by an alleged authority is acceptable (Ennis 1962: 84), to plan a search for desired information (Facione 1990a: 9), and to judge the credibility of a source (Ennis 1991: 9). Ability to judge the credibility of statements is tested by 24 items (out of 76) in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level X (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005) and by four items (out of 52) in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005). The College Learning Assessment’s performance task requires evaluation of whether information in documents is credible or unreliable (Council for Aid to Education 2017).
Argument analysis abilities : The ability to identify and analyze arguments contributes to the process of surveying arguments on an issue in order to form one’s own reasoned judgment, as in Candidate . The ability to detect and analyze arguments is recognized as a critical thinking skill by Facione (1990a: 7–8), Ennis (1991: 9) and Halpern (1998). Five items (out of 34) on the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (Facione 1990b, 1992) test skill at argument analysis. The College Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017) incorporates argument analysis in its selected-response tests of critical reading and evaluation and of critiquing an argument.
Judging skills and deciding skills : Skill at judging and deciding is skill at recognizing what judgment or decision the available evidence and argument supports, and with what degree of confidence. It is thus a component of the inferential skills already discussed.
Lists and tests of critical thinking abilities often include two more abilities: identifying assumptions and constructing and evaluating definitions.
In addition to dispositions and abilities, critical thinking needs knowledge: of critical thinking concepts, of critical thinking principles, and of the subject-matter of the thinking.
We can derive a short list of concepts whose understanding contributes to critical thinking from the critical thinking abilities described in the preceding section. Observational abilities require an understanding of the difference between observation and inference. Questioning abilities require an understanding of the concepts of ambiguity and vagueness. Inferential abilities require an understanding of the difference between conclusive and defeasible inference (traditionally, between deduction and induction), as well as of the difference between necessary and sufficient conditions. Experimenting abilities require an understanding of the concepts of hypothesis, null hypothesis, assumption and prediction, as well as of the concept of statistical significance and of its difference from importance. They also require an understanding of the difference between an experiment and an observational study, and in particular of the difference between a randomized controlled trial, a prospective correlational study and a retrospective (case-control) study. Argument analysis abilities require an understanding of the concepts of argument, premiss, assumption, conclusion and counter-consideration. Additional critical thinking concepts are proposed by Bailin et al. (1999b: 293), Fisher & Scriven (1997: 105–106), Black (2012), and Blair (2021).
According to Glaser (1941: 25), ability to think critically requires knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning. If we review the list of abilities in the preceding section, however, we can see that some of them can be acquired and exercised merely through practice, possibly guided in an educational setting, followed by feedback. Searching intelligently for a causal explanation of some phenomenon or event requires that one consider a full range of possible causal contributors, but it seems more important that one implements this principle in one’s practice than that one is able to articulate it. What is important is “operational knowledge” of the standards and principles of good thinking (Bailin et al. 1999b: 291–293). But the development of such critical thinking abilities as designing an experiment or constructing an operational definition can benefit from learning their underlying theory. Further, explicit knowledge of quirks of human thinking seems useful as a cautionary guide. Human memory is not just fallible about details, as people learn from their own experiences of misremembering, but is so malleable that a detailed, clear and vivid recollection of an event can be a total fabrication (Loftus 2017). People seek or interpret evidence in ways that are partial to their existing beliefs and expectations, often unconscious of their “confirmation bias” (Nickerson 1998). Not only are people subject to this and other cognitive biases (Kahneman 2011), of which they are typically unaware, but it may be counter-productive for one to make oneself aware of them and try consciously to counteract them or to counteract social biases such as racial or sexual stereotypes (Kenyon & Beaulac 2014). It is helpful to be aware of these facts and of the superior effectiveness of blocking the operation of biases—for example, by making an immediate record of one’s observations, refraining from forming a preliminary explanatory hypothesis, blind refereeing, double-blind randomized trials, and blind grading of students’ work. It is also helpful to be aware of the prevalence of “noise” (unwanted unsystematic variability of judgments), of how to detect noise (through a noise audit), and of how to reduce noise: make accuracy the goal, think statistically, break a process of arriving at a judgment into independent tasks, resist premature intuitions, in a group get independent judgments first, favour comparative judgments and scales (Kahneman, Sibony, & Sunstein 2021). It is helpful as well to be aware of the concept of “bounded rationality” in decision-making and of the related distinction between “satisficing” and optimizing (Simon 1956; Gigerenzer 2001).
Critical thinking about an issue requires substantive knowledge of the domain to which the issue belongs. Critical thinking abilities are not a magic elixir that can be applied to any issue whatever by somebody who has no knowledge of the facts relevant to exploring that issue. For example, the student in Bubbles needed to know that gases do not penetrate solid objects like a glass, that air expands when heated, that the volume of an enclosed gas varies directly with its temperature and inversely with its pressure, and that hot objects will spontaneously cool down to the ambient temperature of their surroundings unless kept hot by insulation or a source of heat. Critical thinkers thus need a rich fund of subject-matter knowledge relevant to the variety of situations they encounter. This fact is recognized in the inclusion among critical thinking dispositions of a concern to become and remain generally well informed.
Experimental educational interventions, with control groups, have shown that education can improve critical thinking skills and dispositions, as measured by standardized tests. For information about these tests, see the Supplement on Assessment .
What educational methods are most effective at developing the dispositions, abilities and knowledge of a critical thinker? In a comprehensive meta-analysis of experimental and quasi-experimental studies of strategies for teaching students to think critically, Abrami et al. (2015) found that dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring each increased the effectiveness of the educational intervention, and that they were most effective when combined. They also found that in these studies a combination of separate instruction in critical thinking with subject-matter instruction in which students are encouraged to think critically was more effective than either by itself. However, the difference was not statistically significant; that is, it might have arisen by chance.
Most of these studies lack the longitudinal follow-up required to determine whether the observed differential improvements in critical thinking abilities or dispositions continue over time, for example until high school or college graduation. For details on studies of methods of developing critical thinking skills and dispositions, see the Supplement on Educational Methods .
Scholars have denied the generalizability of critical thinking abilities across subject domains, have alleged bias in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, and have investigated the relationship of critical thinking to other kinds of thinking.
McPeck (1981) attacked the thinking skills movement of the 1970s, including the critical thinking movement. He argued that there are no general thinking skills, since thinking is always thinking about some subject-matter. It is futile, he claimed, for schools and colleges to teach thinking as if it were a separate subject. Rather, teachers should lead their pupils to become autonomous thinkers by teaching school subjects in a way that brings out their cognitive structure and that encourages and rewards discussion and argument. As some of his critics (e.g., Paul 1985; Siegel 1985) pointed out, McPeck’s central argument needs elaboration, since it has obvious counter-examples in writing and speaking, for which (up to a certain level of complexity) there are teachable general abilities even though they are always about some subject-matter. To make his argument convincing, McPeck needs to explain how thinking differs from writing and speaking in a way that does not permit useful abstraction of its components from the subject-matters with which it deals. He has not done so. Nevertheless, his position that the dispositions and abilities of a critical thinker are best developed in the context of subject-matter instruction is shared by many theorists of critical thinking, including Dewey (1910, 1933), Glaser (1941), Passmore (1980), Weinstein (1990), Bailin et al. (1999b), and Willingham (2019).
McPeck’s challenge prompted reflection on the extent to which critical thinking is subject-specific. McPeck argued for a strong subject-specificity thesis, according to which it is a conceptual truth that all critical thinking abilities are specific to a subject. (He did not however extend his subject-specificity thesis to critical thinking dispositions. In particular, he took the disposition to suspend judgment in situations of cognitive dissonance to be a general disposition.) Conceptual subject-specificity is subject to obvious counter-examples, such as the general ability to recognize confusion of necessary and sufficient conditions. A more modest thesis, also endorsed by McPeck, is epistemological subject-specificity, according to which the norms of good thinking vary from one field to another. Epistemological subject-specificity clearly holds to a certain extent; for example, the principles in accordance with which one solves a differential equation are quite different from the principles in accordance with which one determines whether a painting is a genuine Picasso. But the thesis suffers, as Ennis (1989) points out, from vagueness of the concept of a field or subject and from the obvious existence of inter-field principles, however broadly the concept of a field is construed. For example, the principles of hypothetico-deductive reasoning hold for all the varied fields in which such reasoning occurs. A third kind of subject-specificity is empirical subject-specificity, according to which as a matter of empirically observable fact a person with the abilities and dispositions of a critical thinker in one area of investigation will not necessarily have them in another area of investigation.
The thesis of empirical subject-specificity raises the general problem of transfer. If critical thinking abilities and dispositions have to be developed independently in each school subject, how are they of any use in dealing with the problems of everyday life and the political and social issues of contemporary society, most of which do not fit into the framework of a traditional school subject? Proponents of empirical subject-specificity tend to argue that transfer is more likely to occur if there is critical thinking instruction in a variety of domains, with explicit attention to dispositions and abilities that cut across domains. But evidence for this claim is scanty. There is a need for well-designed empirical studies that investigate the conditions that make transfer more likely.
It is common ground in debates about the generality or subject-specificity of critical thinking dispositions and abilities that critical thinking about any topic requires background knowledge about the topic. For example, the most sophisticated understanding of the principles of hypothetico-deductive reasoning is of no help unless accompanied by some knowledge of what might be plausible explanations of some phenomenon under investigation.
Critics have objected to bias in the theory, pedagogy and practice of critical thinking. Commentators (e.g., Alston 1995; Ennis 1998) have noted that anyone who takes a position has a bias in the neutral sense of being inclined in one direction rather than others. The critics, however, are objecting to bias in the pejorative sense of an unjustified favoring of certain ways of knowing over others, frequently alleging that the unjustly favoured ways are those of a dominant sex or culture (Bailin 1995). These ways favour:
A common thread in this smorgasbord of accusations is dissatisfaction with focusing on the logical analysis and evaluation of reasoning and arguments. While these authors acknowledge that such analysis and evaluation is part of critical thinking and should be part of its conceptualization and pedagogy, they insist that it is only a part. Paul (1981), for example, bemoans the tendency of atomistic teaching of methods of analyzing and evaluating arguments to turn students into more able sophists, adept at finding fault with positions and arguments with which they disagree but even more entrenched in the egocentric and sociocentric biases with which they began. Martin (1992) and Thayer-Bacon (1992) cite with approval the self-reported intimacy with their subject-matter of leading researchers in biology and medicine, an intimacy that conflicts with the distancing allegedly recommended in standard conceptions and pedagogy of critical thinking. Thayer-Bacon (2000) contrasts the embodied and socially embedded learning of her elementary school students in a Montessori school, who used their imagination, intuition and emotions as well as their reason, with conceptions of critical thinking as
thinking that is used to critique arguments, offer justifications, and make judgments about what are the good reasons, or the right answers. (Thayer-Bacon 2000: 127–128)
Alston (2001) reports that her students in a women’s studies class were able to see the flaws in the Cinderella myth that pervades much romantic fiction but in their own romantic relationships still acted as if all failures were the woman’s fault and still accepted the notions of love at first sight and living happily ever after. Students, she writes, should
be able to connect their intellectual critique to a more affective, somatic, and ethical account of making risky choices that have sexist, racist, classist, familial, sexual, or other consequences for themselves and those both near and far… critical thinking that reads arguments, texts, or practices merely on the surface without connections to feeling/desiring/doing or action lacks an ethical depth that should infuse the difference between mere cognitive activity and something we want to call critical thinking. (Alston 2001: 34)
Some critics portray such biases as unfair to women. Thayer-Bacon (1992), for example, has charged modern critical thinking theory with being sexist, on the ground that it separates the self from the object and causes one to lose touch with one’s inner voice, and thus stigmatizes women, who (she asserts) link self to object and listen to their inner voice. Her charge does not imply that women as a group are on average less able than men to analyze and evaluate arguments. Facione (1990c) found no difference by sex in performance on his California Critical Thinking Skills Test. Kuhn (1991: 280–281) found no difference by sex in either the disposition or the competence to engage in argumentative thinking.
The critics propose a variety of remedies for the biases that they allege. In general, they do not propose to eliminate or downplay critical thinking as an educational goal. Rather, they propose to conceptualize critical thinking differently and to change its pedagogy accordingly. Their pedagogical proposals arise logically from their objections. They can be summarized as follows:
A common thread in these proposals is treatment of critical thinking as a social, interactive, personally engaged activity like that of a quilting bee or a barn-raising (Thayer-Bacon 2000) rather than as an individual, solitary, distanced activity symbolized by Rodin’s The Thinker . One can get a vivid description of education with the former type of goal from the writings of bell hooks (1994, 2010). Critical thinking for her is open-minded dialectical exchange across opposing standpoints and from multiple perspectives, a conception similar to Paul’s “strong sense” critical thinking (Paul 1981). She abandons the structure of domination in the traditional classroom. In an introductory course on black women writers, for example, she assigns students to write an autobiographical paragraph about an early racial memory, then to read it aloud as the others listen, thus affirming the uniqueness and value of each voice and creating a communal awareness of the diversity of the group’s experiences (hooks 1994: 84). Her “engaged pedagogy” is thus similar to the “freedom under guidance” implemented in John Dewey’s Laboratory School of Chicago in the late 1890s and early 1900s. It incorporates the dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring that Abrami (2015) found to be most effective in improving critical thinking skills and dispositions.
What is the relationship of critical thinking to problem solving, decision-making, higher-order thinking, creative thinking, and other recognized types of thinking? One’s answer to this question obviously depends on how one defines the terms used in the question. If critical thinking is conceived broadly to cover any careful thinking about any topic for any purpose, then problem solving and decision making will be kinds of critical thinking, if they are done carefully. Historically, ‘critical thinking’ and ‘problem solving’ were two names for the same thing. If critical thinking is conceived more narrowly as consisting solely of appraisal of intellectual products, then it will be disjoint with problem solving and decision making, which are constructive.
Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives used the phrase “intellectual abilities and skills” for what had been labeled “critical thinking” by some, “reflective thinking” by Dewey and others, and “problem solving” by still others (Bloom et al. 1956: 38). Thus, the so-called “higher-order thinking skills” at the taxonomy’s top levels of analysis, synthesis and evaluation are just critical thinking skills, although they do not come with general criteria for their assessment (Ennis 1981b). The revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy (Anderson et al. 2001) likewise treats critical thinking as cutting across those types of cognitive process that involve more than remembering (Anderson et al. 2001: 269–270). For details, see the Supplement on History .
As to creative thinking, it overlaps with critical thinking (Bailin 1987, 1988). Thinking about the explanation of some phenomenon or event, as in Ferryboat , requires creative imagination in constructing plausible explanatory hypotheses. Likewise, thinking about a policy question, as in Candidate , requires creativity in coming up with options. Conversely, creativity in any field needs to be balanced by critical appraisal of the draft painting or novel or mathematical theory.
How to cite this entry . Preview the PDF version of this entry at the Friends of the SEP Society . Look up topics and thinkers related to this entry at the Internet Philosophy Ontology Project (InPhO). Enhanced bibliography for this entry at PhilPapers , with links to its database.
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Technologies evolve. But insecurities, blind spots, and gullibility rarely does. We might have the latest software across all of our devices. Sadly, this doesn’t mean that our ability to reason gets frequent updates.
Thinking, and most notably critical thinking. Gives us, humans, a way to parse our way through the plot-twisting narrative of this thing called life.
But simply understanding why is critical thinking important and asking critical thinking questions is rarely enough to move forward and successfully diverge from the pack.
Yes, we need to know how to think better . But we should also consider what can prevent us from thinking better.
This article describes 7 critical thinking barriers.
Obstacles, that can violate our ability to construct a sound thought and restrain us from advancing. And, also, potentially send us back to the starting point of our journey.
A catch-all word for foolishness or lack of critical thinking is this one: hurry. As the famous Baltasar Gracián once said, “Fools are fond of hurry: they take no heed of obstacles and act incautiously.”
When we don’t pause to consider the consequences, we rely on the concepts that are top of mind. But what’s immediately available as a solution, it’s rarely the best solution.
And what else is true is that when we are quick to make a conclusion, it usually means that we fall into conformity. In other words, we barrow the viewpoints of the people around us without critical evaluation.
However, taking time to reflect and think deeply about a subject is a privilege not all situations can provide us with. We might be in a bad situation – say, you injured yourself and the doctor is suggesting an operation. And you have to decide fast how you’d respond.
Critical thinking requires analyzing the available facts; Considering what might be the unknown unknowns ; Making predictions; Playing the different scenarios in your head and making a decision while excluding your biases.
All of this is hard work. And it’s not always successful.
Besides lack of time. Lack of access to vital information. There are other barriers to critical thinking.
Below, I’m observing the most common ones. Hoping that they’ll help you in your day-to-day decision-making.
1. lack of expertise knowledge, 2. knowledge shields, 3. cognitive biases, 4. groupthink, 5. ignorance, 6. rut think, 7. emotional distress.
An obvious critical thinking barrier is lack of skills.
If you find yourself in a situation where you can’t find a good solution to a problem. Or you continuously make mistakes. Chances are, that you are still not skilled enough. You are still not in a possession of the main decision-making mental models the job requires.
Since your outside performance is based on your inner processes. When seeking to upgrade your skills in a given area of life, consider beginning by looking not at outside factors. But the reasons behind your current actions.
Consider what you were thinking about before making a decision and why. Develop the right mental representation – i.e., understand what’s the best way to handle a particular task. 1
If you are new to a field. For example, if you just started a new position as a junior guy/girl, it’s acceptable to make mistakes. But the number of mistakes should decrease with time.
As the authors of the book Accelerated Expertise write, the main ambition of everyone looking to master a field should be:
“A sentiment that has been expressed by many people and in many ways is that apprentices make the same mistake twice, journeymen make the same mistake once, and experts work until they never make mistakes.” Robert R. Hoffman
How do you reach an error-free state?
Ask for feedback.
Seeking corrective feedback from coworkers needs to be part of your toolkit – even if you’re well past the junior state. By perceiving your errors, you will reduce your errors.
Knowledge shields are a strange gimmick of the human mind. I’m sure you’ve experienced using a shield to defend your viewpoints – we all have.
The concept is the following:
When we are presented with evidence that is opposite to our views. Instead of taking a moment to make corrections to our wrong mental models, we do something else. We engage in mental maneuvers to rationalize our faulty beliefs. 2
Simply put, through self-talk, we convince ourselves that what we believe is truthful and what was just presented is false or not that important.
For example, say you just opened a local business where you are going to sell t-shirts with funny prints. On day 3 of the grand opening, you meet an old friend who shares how most local businesses fail between the 1 and the 2nd year. “Huh! Thanks for the support,” you think. But at this moment, are you going to continue, or are you going to dig deeper into the subject and potentially pivot?
Commonly, people will dismiss the fidelity of such statements and push hard to make the impossible possible.
Another universal example is social media. By now, you’ve probably heard dozens of talks, posts, and videos on why social media is bad for you . I personally wrote about the topic here , here , and also here . 3 Nonetheless, there is a high chance that you still participate in the endless online scroll. You hear the facts, but your mind simply passes them by.
In a way, what you know acts like a shield. It blocks new incoming ideas to defend your current beliefs. Thus, the phrase knowledge shield.
Facts that endorse and oppose our beliefs are all around us. You can go insane if you try to figure out all of them. But if you want to move forward, it’s vital to engage in the refinement of your own knowledge and beliefs.
Don’t hold your blinders and just hope to make it. Keep an open mind and make corrections when necessary if you really want to make it.
Cognitive biases are gaining popularity. Which is good, more and more people need to understand how our brains are hardwired to operate.
While the topic deserves a longer treatment. This is the short version… Our brain is trying to reduce energy consumption. That’s why it creates shortcuts.
For example, instead of engaging in the prolonged process of considering all the present information. Asking for advice. Reading books on the subject. At the end of the day, you just put your salary under the mattress.
Why would you do something different?
Investing in stocks is risky. There are a lot of unknowns. In contrast, when your cash is “safely” stored under the mattress, you know where you put your money. You can see them. That’s why we avoid investing. We call it risky because the outcomes are unknown.
That’s a simple example of just one of the large list of cognitive biases – the ambiguity aversion bias. We prefer the familiar instead of something new that can potentially give you bigger rewards or will make you feel better after the initial dose of uncertainty.
That’s also the reason we prefer vacationing in the same average place year after year. Even when there are a ton of options out there.
In The Art of Thinking Clearly , Rolf Dobelli presents a lot of thinking faults that can help you spot your errors. It’s a light read. Go and get it.
And if you’re looking for something more complex on the subject. Consider the following titles:
Cognitive biases are a major critical thinking barrier. Keep them in mind when you are about to make an important decision.
Groups are all around us.
Hopefully, you have the opportunity to be a part of many different groups.
Your family is a group. Your friends are another group. In your job, there are many different groups within the big group with potentially different viewpoints.
And the above are just the primary groups you participate in – there is also the school, the church, the club you support, the online communities, etc.
We love to be part of groups. Especially groups full of people who understand and support us.
Sadly, groups have a terrible side effect. When we “live” in a group for long enough. We absorb the viewpoints of the group. Like a sponge, we soak up the main concepts of the group which then changes how we think and act. The so-called groupthink phenomenon.
I have a first-hand experience with the negative side of groupthink. When I switched schools around the age of 14, most of the folks in my new class were quite average. Not that they weren’t smart, they simply didn’t push themselves compared to my previous class where we were constantly competing for better grades. But instead of keeping my edge, I gave in. I started to didn’t care either.
Of course, there is also the good side. If you want to get fit. To ease the process, you can simply join a group of people who regularly train – e.g., go to the gym or insert yourself in a running club.
As James Clear, the author of Atomic Habits proposes. If you want to adopt a good habit do this:
“The key—if you want to build habits that last—is to join a group where the desired behavior is the normal behavior.” James Clear
Along with that, always keep a healthy distance. Never completely gave in to the ideas of the people around you.
You can be loyal to your friends, but this doesn’t mean that you should be loyal to bad ideas.
Ignorance can be intentional or unintentional.
Intentional ignorance is often caused by arrogance. You consider yourself too smart. Too “adult”. Or, for example, too superior to consider something said by another person lower down the hierarchy.
“Look at these pitiful reptiles. I’m way smarter than them. I don’t care what they say. I graduated from college and I own a Mustang!”
That’s something an arrogant person might think when other people are trying to share an interesting idea.
Ceasing this type of behavior is hard work. A step in the right direction will be employing empathy. In short, you stop thinking solely about yourself, and you start considering the other side.
The other type of ignorance is unintentional. Also labeled as drone mentality.
The short version of this behavior is that you stop paying attention to what’s happening around you. You just kind of live on autopilot.
No thinking is involved in what you do, and you proactively avoid involving yourself in new challenges or problems.
Overcoming this robot-like behavior requires critical awareness. Auditing your beliefs by considering what to think about and fostering your curiosity .
There are two different categories of rut think.
When psychologists talk about rut think, they mean that you feel stuck. Every day feels the same, and you are unmotivated to do anything.
The other definition of rut think is that you simply can’t produce original ideas. You are stuck in the “we’ve always done it this way” thinking.
Let’s consider an example to portray this better…
You work in a marketing agency. There’s a new client who sells mattresses. The representative of the company is looking for a fresh ad that will showcase the uniqueness of their brand. You, on the other hand, after working for more than 10 years in the same position. Don’t see them as unique as they claim to be. “You’ve seen it all!” So, you just copy an ad you did for a similar project in the past because you can’t think about anything else. The client is not pleased. You get fired.
In the book Learning How To Learn , the authors describe rut think as: “Your mind gets so used to running along certain neural pathways that it can’t easily change. You become less flexible in your thinking.”
The everyday sameness leads to the opposite of thinking outside the box – you think inside the box.
Now, after we have a better idea of what is rut think. We can see that the psychological explanation is the cause of the creative problem.
A solution to this type of thinking is doing something different. Read a different book. Learn a new skill. Do something different to break the daily dullness.
By engaging in something different, you’ll invite new original ideas and also start to feel better.
Emotions are probably the biggest critical thinking barrier.
Knowing the best thinking strategies along with the major types of thinking and actually applying them are two different things.
For example, you might consider quitting your boring job to start a small online business because it’s cool to do this these days. You have some money saved, and you go all in. However, after a few months, you realize that running a business is harder than what you initially thought. Yes, online gurus are telling you to keep pushing. But how can you? Your bank account is draining fast!
Let’s think about this for a moment.
Surely, you knew that it was going to be hard. But you didn’t know that it was going to be that hard – i.e., to hurt more than what you thought. It didn’t feel that bad when you were dreaming about becoming a business owner.
Even though we have the ability to forecast how the future will unfold, we can’t adequately predict how our emotions will guide our behavior. We imagine our future in a vacuum. A bubble that is emotionless.
When making a plan, the thought of losing half your savings feels quite different than when you actually lose half your savings.
So, when you are about to make a decision. Don’t simply consider what will happen. But also think about how you’ll feel when this happens. Then, think about how you usually respond when you feel this or that way.
If you freak out when you lose money, it’s probably not a good idea to ditch your current job completely. Consider starting a side thing and see how it will go.
If after reading all of the above, you think something like: “Oh, I don’t have any critical thinking barriers. My decision-making process is quite good, actually. Thanks for nothing, Ivaylo!”
If that’s the case. Well, you probably have a problem. The worst of them all – denial of your own flaws.
Thinking about how to improve your decisions is difficult because your initial thought is that you don’t have issues.
As pointed out above, our brains do all possible to rationalize our faulty beliefs.
So, the first step, sort to say, to crush the critical thinking barriers is to realize that it’s up to you. You are responsible for upgrading your thinking. And, it’s a never-ending process.
And it all starts with changing your perspective.
What’s the best way to do that?
Four things:
The first one is obvious. By reading books, you soak up the knowledge shared by the author. The more you read, the more different viewpoints you accumulate.
Interested? Here’s something to get you started: Before, During, and After Reading Activities .
The second point is also something perceptible. Just change your environment.
Hang around people who complain and are quick to blame others and you’ll become the same. Conversely, talk with positive folks who are optimistic, have and pursue crazy ideas, and you’ll feel more hopeful. You know, smart folks who are so intelligent that you think that they should write a book.
Thirdly, pay attention. Actually listen to what others are saying. Then, think about why they said it.
To become better at critical thinking, you must become watchful of what others do. Deconstruct what they are saying and consider their thought processes.
And finally, acquire a set of critical thinking skills. I’ve covered this here: What Are The 7 Critical Thinking Skills ? and here: How To Improve Critical Thinking Skills .
All of these will help you see the world through a different lens. You’ll expand your possibilities and start to notice things you were unable to see before. The new way of seeing things will lead you to new ideas and unique insights.
Critical thinking sounds so mysterious.
Like a magical spell, that only a selected few are able to cast. Yet, everyone interested in learning how to think can become better at this skill.
The main point is to shift your attention away from trying to impress others, agree with others, and sound cool toward taming your mind.
Critical thinkers consider “is this true” and “what else is true” instead of automatically agreeing with everything they hear and see just to comply with the group.
Sadly, this doesn’t make them a preferred friend. Since you’ll commonly disagree with the people around you. There’s a possibility that the group will want to displace you.
But there is also good news. The better you become at this mind-flex, even if it’s in one field. The better you’ll see opportunities in other fields. Meaning that the skill of critical thinking is transferable.
And if critical thinking still sounds too “out there”. Simply call it thinking. The goal is to never stop doing it and become better at it.
“If everyone is thinking alike, then somebody isn’t thinking.” George S. Patton
Join Farview: A newsletter fostering long-term thinking in a world driven by impatience. Trusted by over 4,300 thinkers, Farview is a concise, thoughtfully organized newsletter helping you handle the self-sabotaging thoughts trying to corrupt you.
Critical thinking is essential for making informed decisions and solving problems effectively. However, several barriers can impede our ability to think critically.
Barriers to critical thinking include cognitive biases and emotional reasoning, hindering objective analysis and problem-solving. Overreliance on tradition and social conditioning can also impede open-mindedness and rational inquiry.
They can be sneaky, like when we only listen to ideas that we already like or when we’re too scared to try new things because we might make mistakes. Sometimes, we might find ourselves just going along with what everyone else thinks, even if, deep down, we’re not sure it’s right. It’s like trying to see through a foggy window – we know there’s more out there, but it’s hard to see clearly.
Despite its importance, several barriers can hinder individuals from thinking critically. Here are five significant barriers to critical thinking:
Egocentrism involves seeing everything concerning oneself, which can hinder objective analysis. For example, prioritizing personal opinions over factual evidence can lead to biased conclusions.
Sociocentrism is the tendency to prioritize the norms and beliefs of one’s group over broader perspectives. This can lead to groupthink, where conformity overrides critical evaluation.
Confirmation bias is the tendency to favor information that confirms preexisting beliefs and disregard contrary evidence. This can skew decision-making and hinder open-minded analysis.
Strong emotions like fear, anger, or frustration can cloud judgment. For instance, making decisions based on emotional reactions rather than logical reasoning can lead to poor outcomes.
A lack of relevant knowledge and information literacy can impede critical thinking. Without a solid knowledge base, it’s challenging to assess the validity of arguments or evidence.
Personal Anecdote
Consider John, who initially struggled with confirmation bias in his research. By actively seeking out and considering opposing viewpoints, John improved his ability to think critically and make well-informed decisions.
Expert Insights
Dr. Emily Johnson, a cognitive psychologist, states, “Recognizing and addressing our biases is crucial for developing strong critical thinking skills.”
Developing awareness and mindfulness.
The first step to overcoming barriers to critical thinking is to develop an awareness of these barriers. Paying attention to what’s influencing our thought processes allows us to recognize and address our biases and fears.
Embracing uncertainty and change is crucial in overcoming fear of failure and normalcy bias. This involves accepting that we don’t always know the answers and being open to new ways of seeing and doing things.
Good critical thinking requires the ability to analyze and evaluate information effectively. This involves taking the time to analyze facts and data, considering the advantages and disadvantages of different perspectives, and developing a solution based on sound reasoning.
Creating an environment where everyone feels comfortable expressing their ideas and opinions is vital for overcoming groupthink. This encourages diversity of thought and promotes strategic thinking, leading to more innovative and effective solutions.
In personal and professional life.
Critical thinking is not just a professional skill but also a valuable tool in our personal lives. By using critical thinking in our personal and professional lives, we can make better decisions, solve problems more effectively, and improve our overall growth and development.
The ability to think critically is fundamental in the decision-making process. It helps us evaluate the situation, consider different perspectives, and choose the most effective way to solve a problem.
Strategic thinking, a soft skill closely related to critical thinking, involves planning for the future by considering various scenarios and outcomes. This type of thinking is essential for long-term success and sustainability in both personal and professional realms.
Overcoming barriers to critical thinking may seem difficult, but it is an achievable goal. By being aware of the barriers, actively working to mitigate their effects, and continuously practicing and applying critical thinking strategies, we can enhance our thinking abilities.
This not only leads to better decision-making and problem-solving but also contributes significantly to the development of a person’s character and life. Let’s strive to overcome these barriers and harness the full power of critical thinking for our personal and professional success.
References:
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Critical thinking is an essential life skill, especially in an age where deceptions like “my truth” and “your truth” run rampant.
It allows us to think our way through issues and arrive at effective solutions, and it is a skill that deserves the dedication it takes to hone it.
In some cases, there are invisible barriers to critical thinking that must first be broken down before progress can be made.
Because it is so vitally important for our teens to develop such skills—to think for themselves in a world pressuring them to tow the line—I think it’s worth addressing potential obstacles in their way.
Here are 10 common barriers to critical thinking that may reveal themselves as you seek to teach this vital skill.
Considering what causes a lack of critical thinking , the word “practice” comes to mind.
The phrase “practice makes progress” rings true when developing critical thinking skills .
Critical thinking may be discussed at length and encouraged theoretically, but is it expressed in the assignments or exercises our teens do on a daily basis?
Sadly, many assignments simply ask for regurgitated facts from a textbook that require little to no real thinking.
If we want to see our students thrive in the realm of critical thinking, we need to provide them with opportunities to practice and apply what they’ve learned in real-life situations.
The idea that you’re not capable of teaching such a thing may just become a self-fulfilling prophecy.
If you believe you can’t teach critical thinking, you may not even try. If you do try, you may be plagued by self-doubt that shakes your confidence.
If you’ve ever thought …
“Why is critical thinking so difficult?”
You’re not alone.
It can be hard to plainly identify what critical thinking is and how to teach it. That’s one of the main reasons we created Philosophy Adventure —to provide an intriguing way to teach critical thinking effectively.
Introduce critical thinking gently & easily with thought-provoking exercises.
Normalcy bias is a subconscious response that falsely assures things will remain the same as they always were.
Every type of bias works against critical thinking as it uses emotion to make decisions rather than rational thought rooted in truth.
This bias encourages our minds to ignore danger and new information in favor of maintaining the safety and security of our “regular” lives.
For example, normalcy bias leads us to believe that freedom will always be free despite growing threats to quench it.
Frankly, it’s a dangerous barrier to critical thinking with the potential for lasting consequences.
The group-think effect is a phenomenon where individuals conform to the beliefs of others in order to avoid appearing different.
It can lead to mass conformity in which society grows blind to flaws in opinion-based reasoning.
Why think for yourself when someone else can do it for you? It’s a sobering thought—and a major obstacle to critical thinking—but I fear it’s one that is sweeping the world.
This is an especially tough barrier for teenagers who are often desperate to be accepted and liked by their peers.
Rather than relying on critical thinking to decipher between right and wrong, they may cave to peer pressure because “everyone else is doing it.”
This barrier is yet another poignant example of why it’s so important to help our children develop critical thinking skills.
We’re also susceptible to having a distorted view of what is fact and what isn’t. If we’re not careful, our view of truth can be distorted by misleading opinions.
Passionate people with deeply held beliefs are often willing to loudly defend them.
Such passion and charisma can seduce teens and adults alike who may not fully know what they believe— or why they believe it .
Of all the psychological obstacles to critical thinking, fear is a weighty one.
I humbly suggest that it is the fear of failure or the fear of change that is most likely to act as a hindrance to critical thinking.
Sometimes, when we look at an issue from every angle, we find that the only right reaction is to change.
Likewise, if we fear failure, we’re likely to not act or try at all.
And when it comes to trying to discern the truth in order to act upon it, not doing so can be far worse than the perceived failure itself.
Some people call it “egocentric thinking.” Whatever the name, it is the tendency to think about the world only as it relates to us.
This self-centered thinking is natural, but there’s great value in training our minds to be able to view issues from another’s point of view. When problem-solving, it’s important to consider other perspectives.
This is particularly true when dealing with people who may be affected by our actions.
Past experiences, relationships, even trauma can change us in a number of ways.
What happened in the past surrounding any given thing most certainly influences how we think and feel about that thing in the future.
But it’s important to recognize past experiences for what they are—a single moment (or period) of time.
They should not define our thoughts, nor should they dictate our actions as we seek to answer life’s questions objectively.
Undoubtedly, it can be difficult to put such things in perspective so, and it calls for self-control, but it’s important to train our teens to try.
Relying exclusively on the past to make decisions today can lead to negative outcomes as it relies on information that may not be true.
Assumptions dampen our ability to learn. Though often flawed, assumptions quench our desire to ask questions because we think we already know the answers.
What a sad state to be stuck in because the truth is …
We don’t know what we don’t know.
How can we learn what we don’t know if we never root out the truth in a given matter?
Similarly, some people assume that because they don’t understand something, then it must be impossible to learn.
That’s simply not true. We have an innate ability to learn new things, and critical thinking helps us do just that—with integrity.
There’s so much to learn in school that it can be hard to find the time to invest in critical thinking discussion and activities .
This skill can often be moved to the side while teens learn about world history and how to write a proper essay—both of which are no doubt important.
But I would argue that critical thinking gives students the foundation to not only better digest the material learned but to excel in it.
We’ve established that critical thinking is an essential part of becoming a discerning adult, unmoved by news biases or passionate, emotional language.
That being said, how do we break through the barriers that hinder critical thinking and move forward to teach such a significant skill?
You can help your students better develop their critical thinking skills by encouraging thoughtful questions and debate.
When consuming news from around the world, inspire them to challenge their initial emotional reactions to the information presented. Teach them how to seek impartial data and use that to form an educated opinion.
Providing real-world examples and connections between topics is a great way to encourage teens to think more deeply about a subject.
Rather than presenting multiple choice answers or fill-in-the-blanks, ask them to talk through the question out loud based on the information they’ve been given.
You can also try a fun exercise with these critical thinking questions for kids .
The ability to clearly vocalize beliefs and express thoughts is a priceless skill, and one that we have weaved into every lesson of Philosophy Adventure :
Critical thinking is a learned skill that requires practice (and breaking down barriers when they arise).
However, the ability to identify logical fallacies in arguments and recognize deception is well worth investing in.
Recognizing potential barriers that are obstructing that end goal is a solid first step.
Critical thinking, as described by Oxford Languages, is the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgement.
Active and skillful approach, evaluation, assessment, synthesis, and/or evaluation of information obtained from, or made by, observation, knowledge, reflection, acumen or conversation, as a guide to belief and action, requires the critical thinking process, which is why it's often used in education and academics.
Some even may view it as a backbone of modern thought.
However, it's a skill, and skills must be trained and encouraged to be used at its full potential.
People turn up to various approaches in improving their critical thinking, like:
Critical thinking can help in planning your paper and making it more concise, but it's not obvious at first. We carefully pinpointed some the questions you should ask yourself when boosting critical thinking in writing:
Usage of critical thinking comes down not only to the outline of your paper, it also begs the question: How can we use critical thinking solving problems in our writing's topic?
Let's say, you have a Powerpoint on how critical thinking can reduce poverty in the United States. You'll primarily have to define critical thinking for the viewers, as well as use a lot of critical thinking questions and synonyms to get them to be familiar with your methods and start the thinking process behind it.
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COMMENTS
6. Egocentric Thinking. Egocentric thinking is also one of the main barriers to critical thinking. It occurs when a person examines everything through a "me" lens. Evaluating something properly requires an individual to understand and consider other people's perspectives, plights, goals, input, etc. 7. Assumptions.
In our view, the 7 most common and harmful critical thinking barriers to actively overcome are: Although egocentric behaviors are less prominent in adulthood, overcoming egocentrism can be a lifelong process. Egocentric thinking is a natural tendency to view everything in relation to oneself. This type of thinking leads to the inability to ...
Double loop always to make sure that you are not patching over the symptoms but getting to the heart of the matter. 6. Failure to identify the involved parts. Take time to figure out and consult ...
1. Introduction. Critical thinking (CT) is a metacognitive process—consisting of a number of skills and dispositions—that, through purposeful, self-regulatory reflective judgment, increases the chances of producing a logical solution to a problem or a valid conclusion to an argument (Dwyer 2017, 2020; Dwyer et al. 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016; Dwyer and Walsh 2019; Quinn et al. 2020).
Problem-solving: Problem-solving is perhaps the most important skill that critical thinkers can possess. The ability to solve issues and bounce back from conflict is what helps you succeed, be a leader, and effect change. ... Critical thinking, in part, is the cognitive process of reading the situation: the words coming out of their mouth ...
2. Lack of Knowledge. CT skills are key components of what CT is, and in order to conduct it, one must know how to use these skills. Not knowing the skills of CT—analysis, evaluation, and ...
The good news? Critical thinking is a teachable skill, and one that any person can learn to make time for when making decisions. To improve and devote time for critical thinking at work, consider the following best practices. 1. Question assumptions and biases. Consider this common scenario: A team is discussing a decision that they must make ...
Promotes problem solving and innovation; Boosts creativity and curiosity; Encourages deeper self-reflection, self-assertion, and independence; ... These critical thinking barriers can come in many forms, including unwarranted assumptions, personal biases, egocentric thinking, and emotions that inhibit us from thinking clearly. ...
The exact definition of critical thinking is still debated among scholars. It has been defined in many different ways including the following: . "purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or ...
Mixing and Matching Critical Thinking Barriers "#mix and #match #mismatch: #pink and #blue #shoes" by cavale is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0. Critical thinking is essential for academic success and effective problem-solving, but various barriers can impede our ability to think critically.
Contrary to popular belief, being intelligent or logical does not automatically make you a critical thinker. People with high IQs are still prone to biases, complacency, overconfidence, and stereotyping that affect the quality of their thoughts and performance at work. But people who scored high in critical thinking —a reflection of sound analytical, problem-solving, and decision-making ...
Problem-solving is a vital skill for coping with various challenges in life. This webpage explains the different strategies and obstacles that can affect how you solve problems, and offers tips on how to improve your problem-solving skills. Learn how to identify, analyze, and overcome problems with Verywell Mind.
It enhances problem-solving skills, allowing individuals to analyze complex situations and come up with effective solutions. ... To overcome barriers to critical thinking, it is important to recognize and address biases, seek diverse perspectives, develop information literacy skills, and build self-confidence in one's ability to think critically.
Problem-Solving with Critical Thinking. Critical thinking plays a vital role in problem-solving by enabling us to approach issues systematically and thoughtfully. Here are some examples of how critical thinking can be applied to problem-solving: Interpersonal Conflicts. When a roommate says unkind words, critical thinking helps us look beyond ...
Fear of failure. One of the most common barriers to problem solving is fear of failure. Fear can prevent us from taking risks and trying new things, preventing us from achieving our goals. Overcoming this fear is vital to success. Several ways to reduce or eliminate fear include practice, visualization, and positive self-talk.
Critical Thinking. Critical thinking is a widely accepted educational goal. Its definition is contested, but the competing definitions can be understood as differing conceptions of the same basic concept: careful thinking directed to a goal. Conceptions differ with respect to the scope of such thinking, the type of goal, the criteria and norms ...
7. Emotional Distress. 1. Lack of Expertise Knowledge. Over time, and as you gain experience. The number of mistakes you make should drastically decrease. An obvious critical thinking barrier is lack of skills. If you find yourself in a situation where you can't find a good solution to a problem. Or you continuously make mistakes.
Barriers to critical thinking include cognitive biases and emotional reasoning, hindering objective analysis and problem-solving. Overreliance on tradition and social conditioning can also impede open-mindedness and rational inquiry. They can be sneaky, like when we only listen to ideas that we already like or when we're too scared to try new ...
In recent decades, approaches to critical thinking have generally taken a practical turn, pivoting away from more abstract accounts - such as emphasizing the logical relations that hold between statements (Ennis, 1964) - and moving toward an emphasis on belief and action.According to the definition that Robert Ennis (2018) has been advocating for the last few decades, critical thinking is ...
2.Perceived Inability to Teach It. The idea that you're not capable of teaching such a thing may just become a self-fulfilling prophecy. If you believe you can't teach critical thinking, you may not even try. If you do try, you may be plagued by self-doubt that shakes your confidence. If you've ever thought ….
Share via: Critical thinking, as described by Oxford Languages, is the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgement. Active and skillful approach, evaluation, assessment, synthesis, and/or evaluation of information obtained from, or made by, observation, knowledge, reflection, acumen or conversation, as a guide to ...
Some common barriers to critical thinking include: 1. Lack of self-awareness. This barrier occurs when individuals are not conscious of their own thoughts, beliefs, or biases. Lack of self-awareness prevents individuals from recognizing their own biases and limitations, hindering their ability to think objectively.
Problem Solving and Critical Thinking Everyone experiences problems from time to time. Some of our problems are big and complicated, while others may be more easily solved. There is no shortage of challenges and issues that can arise on the job. Whether in an office or on a construction site, experiencing difficulties with the tasks at hand or ...
Given the crucial role critical thinking bears in education, it is time for the Higher Educational Institutions (HEIs) to prioritize its cultivation in the teaching-learning processes by promoting a culture of questioning, epistemic curiosity, joyous exploration, and open-mindedness. ... such as for analyzing literature or solving a complex ...