thesis statement about birth order

Birth Order and Its Influence on Personality Essay

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Birth order is defined as a person’s rank by the sequence of birth among his or her siblings. Birth order is commonly believed to have a profound and lasting effect on psychological development.

Sulloway (1995, 1996), states that first-born siblings are expected to be rated higher on the characteristic trait of dominance whereas siblings who are younger or born later can be rated higher on the sociability aspect.

The concept of ‘birth-order’ considerably influencing the personality of a being is not a novel phenomenon. Way back in 1874, Sir Francis Galton (Galton, 1874) proposed that renowned male scientists had a greater possibility to be ‘first-borns’ in their family units rather than ‘later-born’ (Forer, 1969). Investigation and study have revealed that individuals who are born first are found in larger numbers in political office (Hudson, 1990). Zajonc, (2001) reveals that there are likely to be birth-order variation in the levels of intellect along with the ‘Big Five’ facets of character including extraversion, anxiety, meticulousness, amicability, and naivety to experience (Paulhus, Sulloway 1996, Trapnell & Chen 1999).

Sulloway (1996, 2001) has suggested a representation of family unit dynamics relating to the results of birth-order in the character and conduct, which has varied ‘‘causal mechanisms’’. In support of this, Sulloway proposes that whilst parental income is inadequate, the parents tend to focus the available resources more profoundly on a single child, usually the one who is born first. Furthermore, Sulloway infers that first-borns are better built and tougher than those born subsequently and thereby employ these competitive physical features tremendously to their benefit.

Further ‘causal mechanisms’ incorporate ‘de-identification’, where children seek to discriminate themselves from each other another with respect to significance, societal approach, individuality, and role demarcation when sometimes, brothers and sisters implement special characteristics in the families for example, “the rebel of the family”, or “the lamb of the family”, so as to lessen rivalry (Sulloway, 1996, 2001).

Then experimental verification to sustain this model of family dynamics has primarily originated from Sulloway’s (1996) ‘meta-analysis’ of one hundred and ninety six studies involving birth-order. Maintaining the hypothesis, first-born position affirmatively allied to meticulousness, anxiety, and assertiveness, whereas the category of later-born absolutely connected with amicability and ingenuousness to experience.

Sulloway further elucidated these results by proposing that first-borns have a greater propensity to accepted by parents and have great enthusiasm to fulfill parental hopes. Moreover, he states that, first-borns tend to be additionally forceful and envious so as to safeguard cherished parental assets. Sulloway further reveals that later-born children, in contrast, have a greater probability to be pleasant to facilitate the decrease of any potential hostile conflicts with their elder siblings.

Jefferson et al., (1998) too found outcomes corresponding to Sulloway’s calculations in a study conducted by him, permitting the friends, neighbors or co-workers to rate the participants instead of the participants evaluating themselves. Keeping in line with the earlier results, later-borns were recognized by their peers as displaying characteristics which were more friendly, pioneering and reliant than their first-born siblings.

Alfred Adler (1870-1937) who was an Austrian psychiatrist was among the foremost theorists proposing that birth order impacts the individuality of a person. He debated that the order in which a child is born has the potential to significantly alter the lifestyle of a person which involves several facets of the personality such as companionship, love, occupation and many other aspects of life. Adler proposes that when a second child is born, the firstborns are ‘dethroned’, thereby having the potential of influencing them permanently as younger siblings and single children are sometimes pampered.

Michael E. Lamb and Brian Sutton-Smith, elucidate the fact that relationships between siblings habitually remain for an entire life span in their book ‘Sibling Relationships: Their Nature and Significance across the Lifespan’ . They highlight the ‘lifespan’ term proposing that progress within relationships is an incessant process and birth-order affects the lifelong process of development of the personality of an individual (Jefferson et al.1998) and as such research has indicated that unification of persons with dissimilar birth orders tend to be steadier than those of persons of the same birth order (Leman 1998, Toman 1976).

A Greek study affirmed that among individuals at the low birth order there is an increased risk for divorce, and debated that this consequence was predominantly apparent among single children (Skalkidou 2000).

The reason why partners’ birth order is likely to impact matrimonial strength is due to the effect of birth position of either spouse which consequently affects the personality and its development process, thereby producing specific traits in individuals bringing variations in their compatibility to others.

First-borns are likely to be dominating individuals and the subsequent unification of two individuals of the same dominating order, presents a greater likelihood of a divide. The same rule would apply to the union of two last born individuals who are likely to have comparatively unsteady relationships (Leman 1998, Toman 1976).

The reasons why birth order of individuals has the potential of affecting divorce rates is primarily due to the fact that individuals may have specific traits in their personalities such as a poorer levels of risk avoidance which may perhaps influence marriage termination pace. Personalities are known to be affected by birth order because the relations of parents with children is diverse and is to a great extent impacted by the birth order of the siblings (Ernst and Angst 1983), as a result of which dissimilar birth orders can stimulate parents to socialize in dissimilar ways with their children.

Influence of birth order in understanding of the different scientists

According to Eisenman (1992), first-borns are extra apprehensive, superior accomplishers and more innovative, resulting their lives to be extremely dissimilar merely because of them being born as a first child in the family. This may attribute to the fact that a majority of parents tend to be excessively concerned for their first children, and also may possibly be more restraining with him or her than with children born later. It is this theory that elucidates the higher risk of divorce among marriages between first-borns, because restriction is certainly interrelated with an annulment threat (Jockin et al. 1996).

Moore et al. (1997), who researched thirty nine mothers and their first and second born children of two months of age, found that mothers tend to positively influence their second-born children as compared to the first-borns, consequently resulting in the second rank children to develop a more positive personality than the first born rank.

Obviously, this behavioral difference can affect the risk of divorce given the fact that positivism and negativity in emotions are directly correlated to potential divorce risks (Jockin et al. 1996).

We can thus safely conclude that birth-order does have effects on the individual personality development and the primary aspects of extraversion, friendliness and domination, vary in relation to birth-order (Jefferson et al.,1998).

Beer and Horn (2000), implemented an innovative approach by researching a sample of adopted children, and found a similarity in proved results emphasizing that first-reared children do have an elevated intensity of meticulousness. Behavioral patterns in individuals are firmly fashioned in childhood with the profound influence of parents and siblings and therefore are likely to affect marriage stability in the life of individuals. Children who are born first along with single children have a greater likelihood of developing particular characteristic qualities, including anxiety and aspiration, resulting a child who is a first born to develop a steadier relationship with a potential later-born having dominating aspects in the persona.

However, in the case of both the marital partners being first-borns, potentially implies a higher level of conflict given that both may reflect qualities of being stubborn or less compromising behaviors. For instance, if either partner is a first-born individual, and the other is a later-born, the resultant relationship is likely to be steadier in view of the “leader-follower” kind of union, where one partner is less dominating than the other, thereby reducing the chances of disagreement between them. In the dissimilar case of both the marital partners being later-born individuals, there may be an absence of a leader in the relationship, resulting in an unsatisfying relationship between the two.

Thus we see how there is an effect of birth order on divorce risk. It is evident that single children run a lower risk of dissolving their marriages. Marriages between two first-borns are the most unstable relationships, whereas marriages between two only children are the most stable.

Ever since the 1970s, the ‘confluence model’ of Robert Zajonc has been significant in elucidating one of the most important hypothesis to explicate why firstborn children or individuals habitually achieve better scores for their intellect and accomplishment tests than other children. According to the model, firstborn children early on in their lives, primarily have greater adult authority surrounding them and as a result, they spend their preliminary childhood years intermingling in a scholarly environment. This theory also proposes that firstborn children tend to be more intelligent than ‘only children’, because ‘single children’ cannot benefit from the ‘tutor effect’ of elder siblings teaching the younger ones.

According to recent researchers conducted and reported in the journal Science (June 2007), “the eldest children in families tend to develop slightly higher IQs than their younger siblings” (Harris, Judith Rich, 2006). These results could possibly be an outcome of the valuable quality time that parents tend to spend with their children who are born first rather than those who are born later. (Price, Joseph, 2008)

The discussion as to whether birth-order affects the personality development of an individual is in no way over and expectantly new researchers will explore fresh perspectives and means in the birth-order research.

Adler, A. (1964). Problems of neurosis . New York: Harper and Row.

E. Beck et al. / Personality and Individual Differences.

Eisenman, R. 1992. Birth order, development and personality. Acta Paedopsychiatr. 1992;55(1):25-7.

Jockin V, M. McGue and D. Lykken (1996): Personality and divorce: a genetic analysis.

Ernst, C., & Angst, J. 1983. Birth order: Its influence on personality. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

Forer, L. K. (1969). Birth-order and life roles. Illinois: Charles C. Thomas.

Galton, F. (1874). English men of science: Their nature and nurture. London: Macmillan.

Harris, Judith Rich (2006), No Two Alike: Human Nature and Human Individuality (pp. 107-112)

Hudson, V. M. (1990). Birth-order of world leaders: an exploratory analysis of effects on personality and behaviour. Political Psychology, 11, 583–601.

Jefferson, T. J., Herbst, J. H., & McCrae, R. R. (1998). Associations of birth-order and personality traits: evidence from self-reports and observer ratings. Journal of Research in Personality, 32, 498–509.

Lamb, M. E., Sutton-Smith, B. (1982). Sibling Relationships: Their Nature and Significance of the Lifespan. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Leman, K. 1998. The New Birth Order Book: Why You Are the Way You Are”.

Moore, G.A., Cohn, J.F., & Campbell, S.B. 1997. Mothers’ affective behavior with infant siblings: Stability and change. Developmental Psychology.

Paulhus, D. L., Trapnell, P. D., & Chen, D. (1999). Birth-order effects on personality and achievement within families. Psychological Science.

Price, Joseph (2008). “Parent-Child Quality Time: Does Birth Order Matter?”

Skalkidou, A. 2000. “Parental Family Variables and Likelihood of Divorce”.

Sulloway, F. J. (1995). Birth-order and evolutionary psychology: a meta-analytic overview. Psychological Inquiry, 6, 75–80.

Sulloway, F. J. (1996). Born to rebel: Birth-order, family dynamics, and creative lives. New York: Pantheon Books.

Sulloway, F. J. (2001). Birth-order, sibling competition, and human behavior. In H. R. Holcomb, III (Ed.), Conceptual challenges in evolutionary psychology: Innovative research strategies. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.

Toman, W. Family Constellation 1976, New York: Springer.

Zajonc, R. B. (2001). The family dynamics of intellectual development. American Psychologist, 56, 490–496.

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How Does Birth Order Shape Your Personality?

Beware the stereotypes

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What Is Adler’s Birth Order Theory?

First-born child, middle child.

• Impact on Relationships

Debunking Myths and Limitations

Birth order refers to the order a child is born in relation to their siblings, such as whether they are first-born, middle-born, or last-born. You’ve probably heard people joke about how the eldest child is the bossy one, the middle child is the peace-maker, and the youngest child is the irresponsible rebel—but is there any truth to these stereotypes?

Psychologists often look at how birth order can affect development, behavior patterns, and personality characteristics, and there is some evidence that birth order might play a role in certain aspects of personality .

At a Glance

Researchers often explore how birth order, including the differences in parental expectations and sibling dynamics, can affect development and character. According to some researchers, firstborns, middle children, youngest-children, and only child-children often exhibit distinctive characteristics that are strongly influenced by how birth order shapes parental and sibling behaviors.

Early in the 20th century, the Austrian psychiatrist Alfred Adler introduced the idea that birth order could impact development and personality. Adler, the founder of individual psychology, was heavily influenced by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud .

Key points of Adler's birth order theory were that firstborns were more likely to develop a strong sense of responsibility, middleborns a desire for attention, and lastborns a sense of adventure and rebellion.

Adler also notably introduced the concept of the " family constellation ." This idea emphasizes the dynamics that form between family members and how these interactions play a part in shaping individual development.

Adler's birth order theory suggests that firstborns get more attention and time from their parents. New parents are still learning about child-rearing, which means that they may be more rule-oriented, strict, cautious, and sometimes even neurotic .

They are often described as responsible leaders with Type A personalities , a phenomenon sometimes referred to as " oldest-child syndrome ."

"Older siblings, regardless of gender, often feel more deprived or envious since they have experienced having another child divert attention away from them at some point in their lives. They tend to be more success-oriented,” explains San Francisco therapist Dr. Avigail Lev.

Firstborn children are often described as:

• High-achieving (or sometimes even over-achieving )
• Structured and organized
• Responsible

All this extra attention firstborns enjoy changes abruptly when younger siblings come along. When you become an older sibling, you suddenly have to share your parent's attention. You may feel that your parents have higher expectations for you and look to you to set an example for your younger siblings.

Consider the experiences of the oldest siblings, who are frequently tasked with caring for younger siblings. Because they are often expected to help fill the role of caregivers, they may be more nurturing, responsible, and motivated to excel.

Such traits are affected not only by birth order but also by how your position in the family affects your parent's expectations and your relationship with your younger siblings.

Research has found that firstborn kids tend to have more advanced cognitive development , which may also confer advantages when it comes to school readiness skills. However, it's important to remember that being the oldest child can also come with challenges, including carrying the weight of expectations and the burden of taking a caregiver role within the family.

Adler suggested that middle children tend to become the family’s peacemaker since they often have to mediate conflicts between older and younger siblings. Because they tend to be overshadowed by their eldest siblings, middle children may seek social attention outside of the family.

In families with three children, the youngest male sibling is likely to be more passive or easy-going.

Middleborns are often described as:

• Independent
• Peacemakers
• People pleasers
• Attention-seeking
• Competitive

While they tend to be adaptable and independent, they can also have a rebellious streak that tends to emerge when they want to stand apart from their siblings.

" Middle child syndrome " is a term often used to describe the negative effects of being a middle child. Because middle kids are sometimes overlooked, they may engage in people-pleasing behaviors as adults as a way to garner attention and favor in their lives.

While research is limited, some studies have shown that middle kids are less likely to feel close to their mothers and are more likely to have problems with delinquency.

Some research suggests that middle children may be more sensitive to rejection . As a middle child, you may feel like you didn't get as much attention and were constantly in competition with your siblings. You may struggle with feelings of insecurity, fear of rejection, and poor self-confidence .

Lastborns, often referred to as the "babies" of the family, are often seen as spoiled and pampered compared to their older siblings. Because parents are more experienced at this point (and much busier), they often take a more laissez-faire approach to parenting . 

Last-born children are sometimes described as:

• Free-spirited
• Manipulative
• Self-centered
• Risk-taking

Adler's theory suggests that the youngest children tend to be outgoing, sociable, and charming. While they often have more freedom to explore, they also often feel overshadowed by their elder siblings, referred to as " youngest child syndrome ."

Because parents are sometimes less strict and disciplined with last-borns, these kids may have fewer self-regulation skills.

"If the youngest of many children is female, she tends to be more coddled or cared for, leading to a greater reliance on others compared to her older siblings, especially in larger families," Lev suggests.

Only children are unique in that they never have to share their parents' attention and resources with a sibling. It can be very much like being a firstborn in many ways. These kids may be doted on by their caregivers, but never have younger siblings to interact with, which may have an impact on development.

Only children are often described as:

• Perfectionistic
• High-achieving
• Imaginative
• Self-reliant

Because they interact with adults so much, only children often seem very mature for their age. If you're an only child, you may feel more comfortable being alone and enjoy spending time in solitude pursuing you own creative ideas. You may like having control and, because of your parents' high expectations, have strong perfectionist tendencies .

How Birth Order Influences Relationships

Birth order may affect relationships in a wide variety of ways. For example, it may impact how you form connections with other people. It can also affect how you behave within these relationships.

Dr. Lev suggests that the effects of birth order can differ depending on gender. 

"For instance, in a family with two female siblings, the younger one often appears more confident and empowered, while the older one is more achievement-focused and insecure," she explains.

She also suggests that there is often a notable rivalry between same-sex siblings versus that of mixed-gender siblings. Again, this effect can vary depending on gender. Where an older sister might be less secure and the younger sister more secure, the opposite is often true when it comes to older and younger brothers.

"This could be because older sisters often assume a motherly role, while older brothers might take on more of a bully role. As a result, younger brothers are generally more insecure, whereas younger sisters tend to be more confident than their older siblings," she explains.

Some other potential effects include:

Communication

Birth order can affect how you communicate with others, which can have a powerful impact on relationship dynamics.

• Firstborns and only children are often seen as more direct, which others can sometimes interpret as bossy or controlling.
• Middle children may be less confrontational and more likely to look for solutions that will accommodate everyone.
• Lastborns, on the other hand, may rely more on their sense of humor and charm to guide their social interactions.

Relationship Roles

Birth order may also influence the roles that you take on in a relationship.

• Firstborns, for example, may be more likely to take on a caregiver role. This can be nurturing and supportive, but it can sometimes make partners feel like they are being "parented." 
• Middle children are more likely to be flexible and take a more easygoing approach.
• Lastborns may be more carefree and less rigid.

Expectations

What we expect from relationships can sometimes also be influenced by birth order.

• Firstborns often have high expectations of themselves and others, sometimes leading to criticism when people fall short.
• Middle children are more prone to seek balance in relationships and want to make sure that everyone is treated fairly and contributing equally.
• Lastborns may place the burden of responsibility on their partner's shoulders while they take a more laissez-faire approach.

"Generally, older siblings are more likely to be in the scapegoat role, while the youngest siblings often have a more idealized view of the family," Lev explains.

Other Factors Play a Role

How birth order influences interpersonal relationships can also be influenced by other factors. Some of these include personality differences, parenting styles , the parents' relationship with one another, and even the birth order of the parents themselves.

While birth order theory holds a popular position in culture, much of the available evidence suggests that it likely only has a minimal impact on developmental outcomes. In other words, birth order is only one of many factors that affect how we grow and learn. 

While some research suggests that there are some small personality differences between the oldest and youngest siblings, researchers have concluded that there are no significant differences in personality or cognitive abilities based on birth order.

Birth order doesn't exist in a vacuum. Genetics, socioeconomic status, family resources, health factors, parenting styles, and other environmental variables influence child development. Other family factors, such as age spacing between siblings, sibling gender, and the number of kids in a family, can also moderate the effects of birth order.

Adler’s birth order theory suggests that the order in which you are born into your family can have a lasting impact on your behavior, emotions, and relationships with other people. While there is some support indicating that birth order can affect people in small ways, keep in mind that it is just one part of the developmental puzzle.

Family dynamics are complex, which means that your relationships with both your parents and siblings are influenced by factors like genetics, environment, child temperament, and socioeconomic status.

In other words, there may be some truth to the idea that firstborns get more attention (and responsibility), that middleborns get less attention (and more independence), and that lastborns get more freedom (and less discipline). But the specific dynamics in your family might hinge more on things like resources and parenting styles than on whether you arrived first, middle, or last.

Individual aspects of your own personality are shaped by many things, but you may find it helpful to reflect on your own experiences in your family and consider the influence that birth order might have had.

Damian RI, Roberts BW. Settling the debate on birth order and personality . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 2015;112(46):14119-14120. doi:10.1073/pnas.1519064112

Luo R, Song L, Chiu I. A closer look at the birth order effect on early cognitive and school readiness development in diverse contexts . Frontiers in Psychology . 2022;13. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.871837

Salmon CA, Daly M. Birth order and familial sentiment . Evolution and Human Behavior . 1998;19(5):299-312. doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(98)00022-1

Cundiff PR. Ordered delinquency: the "effects" of birth order on delinquency . Pers Soc Psychol Bull . 2013;39(8):1017-1029. doi:10.1177/0146167213488215

Çabuker ND, Batık HESBÇMV. Does psychological birth order predict identity perceptions of individuals in emerging adulthood? International Online Journal of Educational Sciences. 2020;12(5):164–176.

Damian RI, Roberts BW. The associations of birth order with personality and intelligence in a representative sample of U.S. high school students . Journal of Research in Personality . 2015;58:96-105. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2015.05.005

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Personality Research Paper Outline: The Impact of Birth Order on an Individual’s Personality

Thesis statement.

Grounded on Alfred Adler’s classification of the birth order (oldest, middle, youngest and lonely) (Al-Khayat & Al-Adwan, 2016), the article asserts personality traits including family and social relations to no small extent are influenced by birth order.

1 st  Main point:  Birth order describes the position of an individual among his or her siblings.

Birth order affects the role and responsibilities of an individual among his or her siblings regarding treatment and care; therefore, it has the potential to influence their activities and subsequently character traits and personality.

Studies indicate that there is a difference between parents regarding raising and treating their children according to their birth order (Al-Khayat & Al-Adwan, 2016). Research asserts that the oldest child often receives the highest and most reliable care and motivation from the parents, the last child comes second regarding attention from parents while the middle children are ranked as children that receive the least consideration.

Since parents treat and raise their children according to their birth order, it is likely that each child (oldest, youngest, middle and lonely) will develop behaviors and character traits that collaborate their position.

2 nd  Main point:  Even though many siblings are brought up in the same family and the same environment, their characteristics are unlikely to be similar.

Indeed, research postulates that the eldest child tends to be more conservative often influenced by the perception of love and leadership while the youngest child in the family tends to be more competitive and subsequently more successful compared to his or her siblings (Al-Khayat & Al-Adwan, 2016). The middle child, on the other hand, illustrates the traits of self-dependence and in many cases more social compared to the first and the last children (Ha & Tam, 2011).

The difference in character traits despite being brought up in the same environment reflects the undeniable influence of birth order on personality.

3 rd  Main point:  Although birth order has an evident influence on personality trait, various factors impact birth order and its association with character including the fact that each family is subjected to different social, economic and genetic factors.

For instance, Rohrer, Egloff, and Schmukle (2015) concentrated on the impact of gender on birth order and subsequently personality traits and affirmed that sex has no substantial influence on character traits of an individual. The study concluded that birth order does not impact personality trait. Indeed, the authors ascertained that the difference that parents witness in their children based on their birth order might be more related to age than the position of birth. Therefore, one concluded that a younger child might become more conscientious with time as he or she grows older unlike the belief held in the birth order-personality association. Khodarahima and Ogletree (2011) also illustrate that the number of family members has an impact on the personality traits of an individual. The research stated that the number of family members is inversely associated with self-competence and happiness of a person.

The controversy on the topic of birth order and personality trait is attributed to the fact that various factors influence an individual’s personality that extends beyond birth order in the family.

Despite the acknowledged influence of birth order on personality traits of an individual, the controversy in research as noted in the paper illustrates that personality development is a multi-faceted and under the influence from various factors.

Al-Khayat, M. M., & Al-Adwan, F. E. (2016). The effect of birth order on personality traits and academic performance at sample of families in Jordan.  European Journal of Social Sciences, 52 (2), 151-161.

Ha, T., & Tam, C. (2011). A study of birth order, academic performance, and personality.  International Conference on Social Science and Humanity.  Singapore.

Khodarahima, S., & Ogletree, S. L. (2011). Birth order, family size, and positive psychological constructs: What roles do they play for Iranian adolescents and young adults.  Journal of Individual Psychology .

Rohrer, J., Egloff, B., & Schmukle, S. (2015). Examining the effect of birth order on personality.  PNAS, 112 (46), 14224-14229.

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The Reporter

New Evidence on the Impacts of Birth Order

What determines a child's success? We know that family matters — children from higher socioeconomic status families do better in school, get more education, and earn more.

However, even beyond that, there is substantial variation in success across children within families. This has led researchers to study factors that relate to within-family differences in children's outcomes. One that has attracted much interest is the role played by birth order, which varies systematically within families and is exogenously determined.

While economists have been interested in understanding human capital development for many decades, compelling economic research on birth order is more recent and has largely resulted from improved availability of data. Early work on birth order was hindered by the stringent data requirements necessary to convincingly identify the effects of birth order. Most importantly, one needs information on both family size and birth order. As there is only a third-born child in a family with at least three children, comparing third-borns to firstborns across families of different sizes will conflate the birth order effect with a family size effect, so one needs to be able to control for family size. Additionally, it is beneficial to have information on multiple children from the same family so that birth order effects can be estimated from within-family differences in child outcomes; otherwise, birth order effects will be conflated with other effects that vary systematically with birth order, such as cohort effects. Large Scandinavian register datasets that became available to researchers beginning in the late 1990s have enabled birth order research, as they contain population data on both family structure and a variety of child outcomes. Here, I describe my research with a number of coauthors, using these data to explore the effects of birth order on outcomes including human capital accumulation, earnings, development of cognitive and non-cognitive skills, and health.

Birth Order and Economic Success

Almost a half-century ago, economists including Gary Becker, H. Gregg Lewis, and Nigel Tomes created models of quality-quantity trade-offs in child-rearing and used these models to explore the role of family in children's success. They sought to explain an observed negative correlation between family income and family size: if child quality is a normal good, as income rises the family demands higher-quality children at the cost of lower family size. 1

However, this was a difficult model to test, as characteristics other than family income and child quality vary with family size. The introduction of natural experiments, combined with newly available large administrative datasets from Scandinavia, made testing such a model possible.

In my earliest work on the topic, Paul Devereux, Kjell Salvanes, and I took advantage of the Norwegian administrative dataset and set out to better understand this theoretical quantity-quality tradeoff. 2 It became clear that child "quality" was not a constant within a family — children within families were quite different, despite the model assumptions to the contrary. Indeed, we found that birth order could explain a large fraction of the family size differential in children's educational outcomes. Average educational attainment was lower in larger families largely because later-born children had lower average education, rather than because firstborns had lower education in large families than in small families. We found that firstborns had higher educational attainment than second-borns who in turn did better than third-borns, and so on. These results were robust to a variety of specifications; most importantly, we could compare outcomes of children within the same families.

To give a sense of the magnitude of these effects: The difference in educational attainment between the first child and the fifth child in a five-child family is roughly equal to the difference between the educational attainment of blacks and whites calculated from the 2000 Census. We augmented the education results by examining earnings, whether full-time employed, and whether one had a child as a teenager as additional outcome variables, and found strong evidence for birth order effects, particularly for women. Later-born women have lower earnings (whether employed full-time or not), are less likely to work full-time, and are more likely to have their first child as teenagers. In contrast, while later-born men have lower full-time earnings, they are not less likely to work full-time [Figure 1].

Birth Order and Cognitive Skills

One possible explanation for these differences is that cognitive ability varies systematically by birth order. In subsequent work, Devereux, Salvanes, and I examined the effect of birth order on IQ scores. 3

The psychology literature has long debated the role of birth order in determining children's IQs; this debate was seemingly resolved when, in 2000, J. L. Rodgers et al. published a paper in American Psychologist entitled "Resolving the Debate Over Birth Order, Family Size, and Intelligence" that referred to the apparent relationship between birth order and IQ as a "methodological illusion." 4 However, this work was limited due to the absence of large representative datasets necessary to identify these effects. We again used population register data from Norway to estimate this relationship.

To measure IQ, we used the outcomes of standardized cognitive tests administered to Norwegian men between the age of 18 and 20 when they enlist in the military. Consistent with our earlier findings on educational attainment but in contrast to the previous work in the literature, we found strong birth order effects on IQ that are present when we look within families. Later-born children have lower IQs, on average, and these differences are quite large. For example, the difference between firstborn and second-born average IQ is on the order of one-fifth of a standard deviation, or about three IQ points. This translates into approximately a 2 percent difference in annual earnings in adulthood.

The Effect of Birth Order on Non-Cognitive Skills

Personality is another factor that is posited to vary by birth order, a proposition that has been particularly difficult to assess in a compelling way due to the paucity of large datasets containing information on individual personality. In recent work on the topic, Erik Gronqvist, Bjorn Ockert, and I use Swedish administrative datasets to examine this issue. 5

In the economics literature, personality traits are often referred to as non-cognitive abilities and denote traits that can be distinguished from intelligence. 6 To measure "personality" (or non-cognitive skills), we use the outcome of a standardized psychological evaluation, conducted by a certified psychologist, that is performed on all Swedish men between the ages of 18 and 20 when they enlist in the military, and which is strongly related to success in the labor market. An individual is given a higher score if he is considered to be emotionally stable, persistent, socially outgoing, willing to assume responsibility, and able to take initiative. Similar to the results for cognitive skills, we find evidence of consistently lower scores in this measure for later-born children. Third-born children have non-cognitive abilities that are 0.2 standard deviations below firstborn children. Interestingly, boys with older brothers suffer almost twice as much in terms of these personality characteristics as boys with older sisters.

Importantly, we also demonstrate that these personality differences translate into differences in occupation choice by birth order. Firstborn children are significantly more likely to be employed and to work as top managers, while later-born children are more likely to be self-employed. More generally, firstborn children are more likely to be in occupations requiring sociability, leadership ability, conscientiousness, agreeableness, emotional stability, extraversion, and openness.

The Effect of Birth Order on Health

Finally, how do these differences translate into later health? In more recent work, Devereux, Salvanes, and I analyze the effect of birth order on health. 7 There is a sizable body of literature about the relationship between birth order and adult health; individual studies have typically examined only one or a small number of health outcomes and, in many cases, have used relatively small samples. Again, we use large nationally representative data from Norway to identify the relationship between birth order and health when individuals are in their 40s, where health is measured along a number of dimensions, including medical indicators, health behaviors, and overall life satisfaction.

The effects of birth order on health are less straightforward than other outcomes we have examined, as firstborns do better on some dimensions and worse on others. We find that the probability of having high blood pressure declines with birth order, and the largest gap is between first- and second-borns. Second-borns are about 3 percent less likely to have high blood pressure than firstborns; fifth-borns are about 7 percent less likely to have high blood pressure than firstborns. Given that 24 percent of this population has high blood pressure, this is quite a large difference. Firstborns are also more likely to be overweight and obese. Compared with second-borns, firstborns are 4 percent more likely to be overweight and 2 percent more likely to be obese. The equivalent differences between fifth-borns and firstborns are 10 percent and 5 percent. For context, 47 percent of the population is overweight and 10 percent is obese. Once again, the magnitudes are quite large.

However, later-borns are less likely to consider themselves to be in good health, and measures of mental health generally decline with birth order. Later-born children also exhibit worse health behaviors. The number of cigarettes smoked daily increases monotonically with birth order, suggesting that the higher prevalence of smoking by later-borns found among U.S. adolescents by Laura M. Argys et al. 8 may persist throughout adulthood and, hence, have important effects on health outcomes.

Possible Mechanisms

Why are adult outcomes likely to be affected by birth order? A host of potential explanations has been proposed across several academic disciplines.

A number of biological factors may explain birth order effects. These relate to changes in the womb environment or maternal immune system that occur over successive births. Beyond biology, parents could have other influences. Childhood inputs, especially in the first years of life, are considered crucial for skill formation. 9 Firstborn children have the full attention of parents, but as families grow the family environment is diluted and parental resources become scarcer. 10 In contrast, parents are more experienced and tend to have higher incomes when raising later-born children. In addition, for a given amount of resources, parents may treat firstborn children differently than second- or later-born children. Parents may use more strict parenting practices toward the firstborn, so as to gain a reputation for "toughness" necessary to induce good behavior among later-borns. 11

There are also theories that suggest that interactions among siblings can shape birth order effects. For example, based on evolutionary psychology, Frank J. Sulloway suggests that firstborns have an advantage in following the status quo, while later-borns — by having incentives to engage in investments aimed at differentiating themselves — become more sociable and unconventional in order to attract parental resources. 12

In each of these papers, we attempted to identify potential mechanisms for the patterns we observed. However, it is here we see the limitations of these large administrative datasets, as for the most part, we lack necessary detailed information on biological factors and on household dynamics when the children are young. However, we do have some evidence on the role of biological factors. Later-born children tend to have better birth outcomes as measured by factors such as birth weight. In our Swedish data, we took advantage of the fact that some children's biological birth order is different from their environmental birth order, due to the death of an older sibling or because their parent gave up a child for adoption. When we examine this subsample, we find that the birth order effect on occupational choice is entirely driven by the environmental birth order, again suggesting that biological factors may not be central.

Also in our Swedish study, we found that firstborn teenagers are more likely to read books, spend more time on homework, and spend less time watching TV or playing video games. Parents spend less time discussing school work with later-born children, suggesting there may be differences in parental time investments. Using Norwegian data, we found that smoking early in pregnancy is more prevalent for first pregnancies than for later ones. However, women are more likely to quit smoking during their first pregnancy than during later ones, and firstborns are more likely to be breastfed. These findings suggest that early investments may systematically benefit firstborns and help explain their generally better outcomes.

In the past two decades, with the increased accessibility of administrative datasets on large swaths of the population, economists and other researchers have been better able to identify the role of birth order in the outcomes of children. There is strong evidence of substantial differences by birth order across a range of outcomes. While I have described several of my own papers on the topic, a number of other researchers have also taken advantage of newly available datasets in Florida and Denmark to examine the role of birth order on other important outcomes, specifically juvenile delinquency and later criminal behavior. 13 Consistent with the work discussed here, later-born children experience higher rates of delinquency and criminal behavior; this is at least partly attributable to time investments of parents.

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G. Becker, "An Economic Analysis of Fertility," in Demographic and Economic Change in Developed Countries , New York, Columbia University Press, 1960, pp. 209-40; G. Becker and H. Lewis, "Interaction Between Quantity and Quality of Children," in Economics of the Family: Marriage, Children, and Human Capital , 1974, pp. 81-90; G. Becker and N. Tomes, "Child Endowments, and the Quantity and Quality of Children," NBER Working Paper 123 , February 1976.  

S. Black, P. Devereux, and K. Salvanes, "The More the Merrier? The Effect of Family Composition on Children's Education" NBER Working Paper 10720 , September 2004, and Quarterly Journal of Economics , 120(2), 2005, pp. 669-700.  

S. Black, P. Devereux, and K. Salvanes, "Older and Wiser? Birth Order and the IQ of Young Men," NBER Working Paper 13237 , July 2007, and CESifo Economic Studies , Oxford University Press, vol. 57(1), pages 103-20, March 2011.  

J. Rodgers, H. Cleveland, E. van den Oord, and D. Rowe, "Resolving the Debate Over Birth Order, Family Size, and Intelligence," American Psychologist , 55(6), 2000, pp. 599-612.

S. Black, E. Gronqvist, and B. Ockert, "Born to Lead? The Effect of Birth Order on Non-Cognitive Abilities," NBER Working Paper 23393 , May 2017.  

L. Borghans, A. Duckworth, J. Heckman, and B. ter Weel, "The Economics and Psychology of Personality Traits," Journal of Human Resources , 43, 2008, pp. 972-1059.  

S. Black, P. Devereux, K. Salvanes, "Healthy (?), Wealthy, and Wise: Birth Order and Adult Health, NBER Working Paper 21337 , July 2015.  

L. Argys, D. Rees, S. Averett, and B. Witoonchart, "Birth Order and Risky Adolescent Behavior," Economic Inquiry , 44(2), 2006, pp. 215-33.  

F. Cunha and J. Heckman, "The Technology of Skill Formation," NBER Working Paper 12840 , January 2007.

R. Zajonc and G. Markus, "Birth Order and Intellectual Development," Psychological Review , 82(1), 1975, pp. 74-88; R. Zajonc, "Family Configuration and Intelligence," Science , 192(4236), 1976, pp. 227-36; J. Price, "Parent-Child Quality Time: Does Birth Order Matter?" in Journal of Human Resources , 43(1), 2008, pp. 240-65; J.Lehmann, A. Nuevo-Chiquero, and M. Vidal-Fernandez, "The Early Origins of Birth Order Differences in Children's Outcomes and Parental Behavior," forthcoming in Journal of Human Resources .  

V. Hotz and J. Pantano, "Strategic Parenting, Birth Order, and School Performance," NBER Working Paper 19542 , October 2013, and Journal of Population Economics , 28(4), 2015, pp. 911-936. ↩  

F. Sulloway, Born to Rebel: Birth Order, Family Dynamics, and Creative Lives , New York, Pantheon Books, 1996.

S. Breining, J. Doyle, D. Figlio, K. Karbownik, J. Roth, "Birth Order and Delinquency: Evidence from Denmark and Florida," NBER Working Paper 23038 , January 2017.

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August 8, 2019

Does Birth Order Affect Personality?

Researchers examine the old adage that birth order plays a significant role in shaping who we are

By Corinna Hartmann & Sara Goudarzi

Kristy-Anne Glubish Getty Images

In spite of sharing genes and environments, siblings are often not as similar in nature as one might think. But where do the supposed differences come from? Alfred Adler, a 19th- and early 20th-century Austrian psychotherapist and founder of individual psychology, suspected that birth order leads to differences in siblings.

Adler considered firstborns to be neurotic, because they don’t have to share their parents for years and are essentially dethroned once a sibling comes along. He also considered oldest children dutiful and sometimes conservative. According to Adler, the youngest children are ambitious, while middle children are optimally positioned in the family and are characterized by emotional stability. Adler himself was the second of seven children.

American psychologist Frank J. Sulloway, who, in the mid-1990s, combed history books for leading figures who were firstborns and rebellious ones who were born later, saw a similar trend. Among the later borns, he found lateral thinkers and revolutionaries, such as Charles Darwin, Karl Marx and Mahatma Gandhi. Among firstborns, he discovered leaders such as Joseph Stalin and Benito Mussolini. His explanation? Every child occupies a certain niche within the family and then uses his or her own strategies to master life. Firstborn and single children had less reason to quarrel with the status quo and identify more strongly with the worldview of their fathers and mothers. Younger siblings are less sure of their parents’ view and therefore more often choose alternative paths in life.

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Such categorizations are popular because they’re rather intuitive, and one can always find an example of the sensible big sister or the rebellious young brother in their circle of acquaintances. As such, Adler’s words still appear regularly in educational guides and continue to reverberate in the minds of parents.

Furthermore, some studies confirmed the idea that sibling position can shape personality. For example, a 1968 study showed that, compared with later borns, first borns are less likely to participate in dangerous sports because of fears of physical injury. And a 1980 study of 170 female and 142 male undergraduates showed lower anxiety and higher ego in firstborns, as measured by the Howarth Personality Questionnaire. At times, however, these investigations used questionable methods. For example, members of the same family were often asked to assess themselves in terms of extraversion, openness to experiences, conscientiousness, tolerance and neuroticism. The catch is these surveys were conducted at only one point in time. The older siblings were therefore not only born first but also simply older. It has long been known that adolescents become more conscientious as they age. This trend could account for a large part of the results. Another methodological flaw was that only one person judged his or her own personality and that of his or her siblings. This detail is important because self-perception and the perception of others can sometimes differ considerably. In addition, the test subjects may have subconsciously incorporated the cliché of dutiful older siblings and cosmopolitan later borns into their evaluation and could have thus brought about the expected result themselves.

Meanwhile scientists who analyzed large, transnational data and compared different families with each other have found the effect of sibling succession on personality disappears almost completely. Researchers led by psychologist Julia Rohrer of the University of Leipzig in Germany evaluated data from more than 20,000 interviewees from Germany, the U.K. and the U.S. They compared the personality profiles of siblings but also of people with different birth orders who had never met. The Leipzig psychologists did not discover any systematic differences in personality.

In such studies, researchers must be particularly cautious because, in addition to age, the size of one’s family is another factor that’s intertwined with sibling position. A child from a family of four has a 50 percent chance of being a firstborn; the more siblings, the lower the probability. For example, the fact that many astronauts are firstborns does not necessarily speak to the special qualities of those born first. It’s likely that many astronauts come from smaller families. To better understand these influences, Rohrer and her team controlled forthe number of siblings. That’s because when there are more of them, there are more later borns. So the researchers hypothesized later borns may more often appear in families of lower socioeconomic classes—which could account for differences between children of different-sized families. 

The larger the sample, the more likely even very small effects will be detected. For example, in a 2015 study, which included 377,000 high school students, psychologist Rodica Damian and her colleague Brent W. Roberts, both then at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign discovered that firstborns tended to be more conscientious, extraverted and willing to lead. Contrary to expectations, they were also more tolerant and emotionally stable than adolescents with older siblings. Yet the differences were very small, and the researchers concluded that the importance that is generally attached to sibling position in shaping one’s character is exaggerated.

“It is quite possible that the position in the sibling sequence shapes the personality—but not in every family in the same way,” says Frank Spinath, a psychologist at Saarland University in Germany. “In other words, there may be an influence but not a systematic one. Nevertheless, other influences weigh more heavily when it comes to the differences in character of siblings. In addition to genes, the so-called undivided environment also plays a role. For siblings who grow up in the same family, this includes the respective circle of friends, for example.” Further, parents do not treat their children the same regardless of their birth rank. Studies show that parents react sensitively to the innate temperament of their offspring and adapt their upbringing accordingly.

Damian’s study also found that on average, firstborns enjoy a small IQ advantage over their younger siblings. Those born first also tend to complete their education with a higher degree and opt for traditionally prestigious careers, such as medicine or engineering.

How does this intellectual advantage come about? Adler may be right that the undivided attention given to the first child in early life promotes cognitive abilities. This advantage is already apparent by the age of two. Norwegian researchers Petter Kristensen and Tor Bjerkedal cleverly showed that the difference in intelligence is not linked to biological factors (some had suspected it might be related to physical conditions during pregnancy). They tested children whose older siblings had died early. The researchers’ assumption was that although these children were biologically younger siblings, they assumed the role of the firstborn in the family. Compared with other younger siblings, they achieved better results in intelligence tests.

BIRTH ORDER THEORY AND HABIT FORMATION: A LITERATURE REVIEW

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• How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on January 11, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on August 15, 2023 by Eoghan Ryan.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . It usually comes near the end of your introduction .

Your thesis will look a bit different depending on the type of essay you’re writing. But the thesis statement should always clearly state the main idea you want to get across. Everything else in your essay should relate back to this idea.

You can write your thesis statement by following four simple steps:

• Start with a question
• Write your initial answer
• Develop your answer
• Refine your thesis statement

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Table of contents

What is a thesis statement, placement of the thesis statement, step 1: start with a question, step 2: write your initial answer, step 3: develop your answer, step 4: refine your thesis statement, types of thesis statements, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about thesis statements.

A thesis statement summarizes the central points of your essay. It is a signpost telling the reader what the essay will argue and why.

The best thesis statements are:

• Concise: A good thesis statement is short and sweet—don’t use more words than necessary. State your point clearly and directly in one or two sentences.
• Contentious: Your thesis shouldn’t be a simple statement of fact that everyone already knows. A good thesis statement is a claim that requires further evidence or analysis to back it up.
• Coherent: Everything mentioned in your thesis statement must be supported and explained in the rest of your paper.

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The thesis statement generally appears at the end of your essay introduction or research paper introduction .

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts and among young people more generally is hotly debated. For many who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education: the internet facilitates easier access to information, exposure to different perspectives, and a flexible learning environment for both students and teachers.

You should come up with an initial thesis, sometimes called a working thesis , early in the writing process . As soon as you’ve decided on your essay topic , you need to work out what you want to say about it—a clear thesis will give your essay direction and structure.

You might already have a question in your assignment, but if not, try to come up with your own. What would you like to find out or decide about your topic?

For example, you might ask:

After some initial research, you can formulate a tentative answer to this question. At this stage it can be simple, and it should guide the research process and writing process .

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Now you need to consider why this is your answer and how you will convince your reader to agree with you. As you read more about your topic and begin writing, your answer should get more detailed.

In your essay about the internet and education, the thesis states your position and sketches out the key arguments you’ll use to support it.

The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education because it facilitates easier access to information.

In your essay about braille, the thesis statement summarizes the key historical development that you’ll explain.

The invention of braille in the 19th century transformed the lives of blind people, allowing them to participate more actively in public life.

A strong thesis statement should tell the reader:

• Why you hold this position
• What they’ll learn from your essay
• The key points of your argument or narrative

The final thesis statement doesn’t just state your position, but summarizes your overall argument or the entire topic you’re going to explain. To strengthen a weak thesis statement, it can help to consider the broader context of your topic.

These examples are more specific and show that you’ll explore your topic in depth.

Your thesis statement should match the goals of your essay, which vary depending on the type of essay you’re writing:

• In an argumentative essay , your thesis statement should take a strong position. Your aim in the essay is to convince your reader of this thesis based on evidence and logical reasoning.
• In an expository essay , you’ll aim to explain the facts of a topic or process. Your thesis statement doesn’t have to include a strong opinion in this case, but it should clearly state the central point you want to make, and mention the key elements you’ll explain.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

Follow these four steps to come up with a thesis statement :

• Ask a question about your topic .
• Write your initial answer.
• Develop your answer by including reasons.
• Refine your answer, adding more detail and nuance.

The thesis statement should be placed at the end of your essay introduction .

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The Federal Trade Commission issued orders to eight companies offering surveillance pricing products and services that incorporate data about consumers’ characteristics and behavior. The orders seek information about the potential impact these practices have on privacy, competition, and consumer protection.

The orders are aimed at helping the FTC better understand the opaque market for products by third-party intermediaries that claim to use advanced algorithms, artificial intelligence and other technologies, along with personal information about consumers—such as their location, demographics, credit history, and browsing or shopping history—to categorize individuals and set a targeted price for a product or service. The study is aimed at helping the FTC better understand how surveillance pricing is affecting consumers, especially when the pricing is based on surveillance of an individual’s personal characteristics and behavior.

“Firms that harvest Americans’ personal data can put people’s privacy at risk. Now firms could be exploiting this vast trove of personal information to charge people higher prices,” said FTC Chair Lina M. Khan. “Americans deserve to know whether businesses are using detailed consumer data to deploy surveillance pricing, and the FTC’s inquiry will shed light on this shadowy ecosystem of pricing middlemen.”

The FTC is using its 6(b) authority, which authorizes the Commission to conduct wide-ranging studies that do not have a specific law enforcement purpose, to obtain information from eight firms that advertise their use of AI and other technologies along with historical and real-time customer information to target prices for individual consumers. The orders were sent to: Mastercard, Revionics, Bloomreach, JPMorgan Chase, Task Software, PROS, Accenture, and McKinsey & Co.

The orders are seeking information on four major areas:

• Types of products and services being offered:  The types of surveillance pricing products and services that each company has produced, developed, or licensed to a third party, as well as details about the technical implementation and current and intended uses of this technology;
• Data collection and inputs:  Information on the data sources used for each product or service, including the data collection methods for each data source, the platforms and methods that were used to collect such data, and whether that data is collected by other parties (such as other companies or other third parties);
• Customer and sales information:  Information about whom the products and services were offered to and what those customers planned to do with those products or services; and
• Impacts on consumers and prices:  Information on the potential impact of these products and services on surveilled consumers including the prices they pay.

The FTC has long been on the front lines of documenting and investigating the hidden ecosystem of data brokers, digital platforms, and other intermediaries that specialize in monitoring and selling user data. The FTC’s 6(b) orders aim to shed light on how the current data ecosystem may facilitate the ability to target consumers with individual prices.

The Commission voted 5-0 to issue the 6(b) orders to the eight companies. Commissioners Melissa Holyoak and Andrew N. Ferguson issued concurring statements.

The Federal Trade Commission works to promote competition , and protect and educate consumers . The FTC will never demand money, make threats, tell you to transfer money, or promise you a prize. You can  learn more about consumer topics  and report scams, fraud, and bad business practices online at  ReportFraud.ftc.gov . Follow the FTC on social media , read our blogs and subscribe to press releases for the latest FTC news and resources.

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