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How To Write A Research Paper

Research Paper Example

Research Paper Example - Examples for Different Formats

Published on: Jun 12, 2021

Last updated on: Jul 19, 2024

Research Paper Example for Different Formats

A research paper typically consists of several key parts, including an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, and annotated bibliography .

When writing a research paper (whether quantitative research or qualitative research ), it is essential to know which format to use to structure your content. Depending on the requirements of the institution, there are mainly four format styles in which a writer drafts a research paper:

Letâs look into each format in detail to understand the fundamental differences and similarities.

Research Paper Example APA

If your instructor asks you to provide a research paper in an APA format, go through the example given below and understand the basic structure. Make sure to follow the format throughout the paper.

APA Research Paper Sample (PDF)

Research Paper Example MLA

Another widespread research paper format is MLA. A few institutes require this format style as well for your research paper. Look at the example provided of this format style to learn the basics.

MLA Research Paper Sample (PDF)

Research Paper Example Chicago

Unlike MLA and APA styles, Chicago is not very common. Very few institutions require this formatting style research paper, but it is essential to learn it. Look at the example given below to understand the formatting of the content and citations in the research paper.

Chicago Research Paper Sample (PDF)

Research Paper Example Harvard

Learn how a research paper through Harvard formatting style is written through this example. Carefully examine how the cover page and other pages are structured.

Harvard Research Paper Sample (PDF)

Examples for Different Research Paper Parts

A research paper is based on different parts. Each part plays a significant role in the overall success of the paper. So each chapter of the paper must be drafted correctly according to a format and structure.

Below are examples of how different sections of the research paper are drafted.

Research Proposal Example

A research proposal is a plan that describes what you will investigate, its significance, and how you will conduct the study.

Research Proposal Sample (PDF)

Abstract Research Paper Example

An abstract is an executive summary of the research paper that includes the purpose of the research, the design of the study, and significant research findings.

It is a small section that is based on a few paragraphs. Following is an example of the abstract to help you draft yours professionally.

Abstract Research Paper Sample (PDF)

Literature Review Research Paper Example

A literature review in a research paper is a comprehensive summary of the previous research on your topic. It studies sources like books, articles, journals, and papers on the relevant research problem to form the basis of the new research.

Writing this section of the research paper perfectly is as important as any part of it.

Literature Review in Research Sample (PDF)

Methods Section of Research Paper Example

The method section comes after the introduction of the research paper that presents the process of collecting data. Basically, in this section, a researcher presents the details of how your research was conducted.

Methods Section in Research Sample (PDF)

Research Paper Conclusion Example

The conclusion is the last part of your research paper that sums up the writerâs discussion for the audience and leaves an impression. This is how it should be drafted:

Research Paper Conclusion Sample

Research Paper Examples for Different Fields

The research papers are not limited to a particular field. They can be written for any discipline or subject that needs a detailed study.

In the following section, various research paper examples are given to show how they are drafted for different subjects.

Science Research Paper Example

Are you a science student that has to conduct research? Here is an example for you to draft a compelling research paper for the field of science.

Science Research Paper Sample (PDF)

History Research Paper Example

Conducting research and drafting a paper is not only bound to science subjects. Other subjects like history and arts require a research paper to be written as well. Observe how research papers related to history are drafted.

History Research Paper Sample (PDF)

Psychology Research Paper Example

If you are a psychology student, look into the example provided in the research paper to help you draft yours professionally.

Psychology Research Paper Sample (PDF)

Research Paper Example for Different Levels

Writing a research paper is based on a list of elements. If the writer is not aware of the basic elements, the process of writing the paper will become daunting. Start writing your research paper taking the following steps:

Choose a topic
Form a strong thesis statement
Conduct research
Develop a research paper outline

Once you have a plan in your hand, the actual writing procedure will become a piece of cake for you.

No matter which level you are writing a research paper for, it has to be well structured and written to guarantee you better grades.

If you are a college or a high school student, the examples in the following section will be of great help.

Research Paper Outline (PDF)

Research Paper Example for College

Pay attention to the research paper example provided below. If you are a college student, this sample will help you understand how a winning paper is written.

College Research Paper Sample (PDF)

Research Paper Example for High School

Expert writers of CollegeEssay.org have provided an excellent example of a research paper for high school students. If you are struggling to draft an exceptional paper, go through the example provided.

High School Research Paper Sample (PDF)

Examples are essential when it comes to academic assignments. If you are a student and aim to achieve good grades in your assignments, it is suggested to get help from CollegeEssay.org .

We are the best writing company that delivers essay help for students by providing free samples and writing assistance.

Professional writers have your back, whether you are looking for guidance in writing a lab report, college essay, or research paper.

Simply hire a writer by placing your order at the most reasonable price. You can also take advantage of our essay writer to enhance your writing skills.

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Research Paper Examples

Research paper examples are of great value for students who want to complete their assignments timely and efficiently. If you are a student in the university, your first stop in the quest for research paper examples will be the campus library where you can get to view the research sample papers of lecturers and other professionals in diverse fields plus those of fellow students who preceded you in the campus. Many college departments maintain libraries of previous student work, including large research papers, which current students can examine.

Embark on a journey of academic excellence with iResearchNet, your premier destination for research paper examples that illuminate the path to scholarly success. In the realm of academia, where the pursuit of knowledge is both a challenge and a privilege, the significance of having access to high-quality research paper examples cannot be overstated. These exemplars are not merely papers; they are beacons of insight, guiding students and scholars through the complex maze of academic writing and research methodologies.

At iResearchNet, we understand that the foundation of academic achievement lies in the quality of resources at one’s disposal. This is why we are dedicated to offering a comprehensive collection of research paper examples across a multitude of disciplines. Each example stands as a testament to rigorous research, clear writing, and the deep understanding necessary to advance in one’s academic and professional journey.

Access to superior research paper examples equips learners with the tools to develop their own ideas, arguments, and hypotheses, fostering a cycle of learning and discovery that transcends traditional boundaries. It is with this vision that iResearchNet commits to empowering students and researchers, providing them with the resources to not only meet but exceed the highest standards of academic excellence. Join us on this journey, and let iResearchNet be your guide to unlocking the full potential of your academic endeavors.

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Importance of Research Paper Examples

Research Paper Writing Services

A Sample Research Paper on Child Abuse

A research paper represents the pinnacle of academic investigation, a scholarly manuscript that encapsulates a detailed study, analysis, or argument based on extensive independent research. It is an embodiment of the researcher’s ability to synthesize a wealth of information, draw insightful conclusions, and contribute novel perspectives to the existing body of knowledge within a specific field. At its core, a research paper strives to push the boundaries of what is known, challenging existing theories and proposing new insights that could potentially reshape the understanding of a particular subject area.

The objective of writing a research paper is manifold, serving both educational and intellectual pursuits. Primarily, it aims to educate the author, providing a rigorous framework through which they engage deeply with a topic, hone their research and analytical skills, and learn the art of academic writing. Beyond personal growth, the research paper serves the broader academic community by contributing to the collective pool of knowledge, offering fresh perspectives, and stimulating further research. It is a medium through which scholars communicate ideas, findings, and theories, thereby fostering an ongoing dialogue that propels the advancement of science, humanities, and other fields of study.

Research papers can be categorized into various types, each with distinct objectives and methodologies. The most common types include:

Analytical Research Paper: This type focuses on analyzing different viewpoints represented in the scholarly literature or data. The author critically evaluates and interprets the information, aiming to provide a comprehensive understanding of the topic.
Argumentative or Persuasive Research Paper: Here, the author adopts a stance on a contentious issue and argues in favor of their position. The objective is to persuade the reader through evidence and logic that the author’s viewpoint is valid or preferable.
Experimental Research Paper: Often used in the sciences, this type documents the process, results, and implications of an experiment conducted by the author. It provides a detailed account of the methodology, data collected, analysis performed, and conclusions drawn.
Survey Research Paper: This involves collecting data from a set of respondents about their opinions, behaviors, or characteristics. The paper analyzes this data to draw conclusions about the population from which the sample was drawn.
Comparative Research Paper: This type involves comparing and contrasting different theories, policies, or phenomena. The aim is to highlight similarities and differences, thereby gaining a deeper understanding of the subjects under review.
Cause and Effect Research Paper: It explores the reasons behind specific actions, events, or conditions and the consequences that follow. The goal is to establish a causal relationship between variables.
Review Research Paper: This paper synthesizes existing research on a particular topic, offering a comprehensive analysis of the literature to identify trends, gaps, and consensus in the field.

Understanding the nuances and objectives of these various types of research papers is crucial for scholars and students alike, as it guides their approach to conducting and writing up their research. Each type demands a unique set of skills and perspectives, pushing the author to think critically and creatively about their subject matter. As the academic landscape continues to evolve, the research paper remains a fundamental tool for disseminating knowledge, encouraging innovation, and fostering a culture of inquiry and exploration.

Browse Sample Research Papers

iResearchNet prides itself on offering a wide array of research paper examples across various disciplines, meticulously curated to support students, educators, and researchers in their academic endeavors. Each example embodies the hallmarks of scholarly excellence—rigorous research, analytical depth, and clear, precise writing. Below, we explore the diverse range of research paper examples available through iResearchNet, designed to inspire and guide users in their quest for academic achievement.

Anthropology Research Paper Examples

Our anthropology research paper examples delve into the study of humanity, exploring cultural, social, biological, and linguistic variations among human populations. These papers offer insights into human behavior, traditions, and evolution, providing a comprehensive overview of anthropological research methods and theories.

Archaeology Research Paper
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Social Problems Research Paper

Art Research Paper Examples

The art research paper examples feature analyses of artistic expressions across different cultures and historical periods. These papers cover a variety of topics, including art history, criticism, and theory, as well as the examination of specific artworks or movements.

Performing Arts Research Paper
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Visual Arts Research Paper

Cancer Research Paper Examples

Our cancer research paper examples focus on the latest findings in the field of oncology, discussing the biological mechanisms of cancer, advancements in diagnostic techniques, and innovative treatment strategies. These papers aim to contribute to the ongoing battle against cancer by sharing cutting-edge research.

Breast Cancer Research Paper
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Communication Research Paper Examples

These examples explore the complexities of human communication, covering topics such as media studies, interpersonal communication, and public relations. The papers examine how communication processes affect individuals, societies, and cultures.

Advertising Research Paper
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Crime Research Paper Examples

The crime research paper examples provided by iResearchNet investigate various aspects of criminal behavior and the factors contributing to crime. These papers cover a range of topics, from theoretical analyses of criminality to empirical studies on crime prevention strategies.

Computer Crime Research Paper
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Hate Crimes Research Paper
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Criminal Justice Research Paper Examples

Our criminal justice research paper examples delve into the functioning of the criminal justice system, exploring issues related to law enforcement, the judiciary, and corrections. These papers critically examine policies, practices, and reforms within the criminal justice system.

Capital Punishment Research Paper
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Criminal Law Research Paper Examples

These examples focus on the legal aspects of criminal behavior, discussing laws, regulations, and case law that govern criminal proceedings. The papers provide an in-depth analysis of criminal law principles, legal defenses, and the implications of legal decisions.

Actus Reus Research Paper
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Criminology Research Paper Examples

iResearchNet’s criminology research paper examples study the causes, prevention, and societal impacts of crime. These papers employ various theoretical frameworks to analyze crime trends and propose effective crime reduction strategies.

Cultural Criminology Research Paper
Education and Crime Research Paper
Marxist Criminology Research Paper
School Crime Research Paper
Urban Crime Research Paper

Culture Research Paper Examples

The culture research paper examples examine the beliefs, practices, and artifacts that define different societies. These papers explore how culture shapes identities, influences behaviors, and impacts social interactions.

Advertising and Culture Research Paper
Material Culture Research Paper
Popular Culture Research Paper
Cross-Cultural Studies Research Paper
Culture Change Research Paper

Economics Research Paper Examples

Our economics research paper examples offer insights into the functioning of economies at both the micro and macro levels. Topics include economic theory, policy analysis, and the examination of economic indicators and trends.

Budget Research Paper
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Education Research Paper Examples

These examples address a wide range of issues in education, from teaching methods and curriculum design to educational policy and reform. The papers aim to enhance understanding and improve outcomes in educational settings.

Early Childhood Education Research Paper
Information Processing Research Paper
Multicultural Education Research Paper
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Standardized Tests Research Paper

Health Research Paper Examples

The health research paper examples focus on public health issues, healthcare systems, and medical interventions. These papers contribute to the discourse on health promotion, disease prevention, and healthcare management.

AIDS Research Paper
Alcoholism Research Paper
Disease Research Paper
Health Economics Research Paper
Health Insurance Research Paper
Nursing Research Paper

History Research Paper Examples

Our history research paper examples cover significant events, figures, and periods, offering critical analyses of historical narratives and their impact on present-day society.

Adolf Hitler Research Paper
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Leadership Research Paper Examples

These examples explore the theories and practices of effective leadership, examining the qualities, behaviors, and strategies that distinguish successful leaders in various contexts.

Implicit Leadership Theories Research Paper
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Mental Health Research Paper Examples

The mental health research paper examples provided by iResearchNet discuss psychological disorders, therapeutic interventions, and mental health advocacy. These papers aim to raise awareness and improve mental health care practices.

ADHD Research Paper
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Political Science Research Paper Examples

Our political science research paper examples analyze political systems, behaviors, and ideologies. Topics include governance, policy analysis, and the study of political movements and institutions.

American Government Research Paper
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Communism Research Paper
Democracy Research Paper
Game Theory Research Paper
Human Rights Research Paper
International Relations Research Paper
Terrorism Research Paper

Psychology Research Paper Examples

These examples delve into the study of the mind and behavior, covering a broad range of topics in clinical, cognitive, developmental, and social psychology.

Artificial Intelligence Research Paper
Assessment Psychology Research Paper
Biological Psychology Research Paper
Clinical Psychology Research Paper
Cognitive Psychology Research Paper
Developmental Psychology Research Paper
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Educational Psychology Research Paper
Environmental Psychology Research Paper
Experimental Psychology Research Paper
Intelligence Research Paper
Learning Disabilities Research Paper
Personality Psychology Research Paper
Psychiatry Research Paper
Psychotherapy Research Paper
Social Cognition Research Paper
Social Psychology Research Paper

Sociology Research Paper Examples

The sociology research paper examples examine societal structures, relationships, and processes. These papers provide insights into social phenomena, inequality, and change.

Family Research Paper
Demography Research Paper
Group Dynamics Research Paper
Quality of Life Research Paper
Social Change Research Paper
Social Movements Research Paper
Social Networks Research Paper

Technology Research Paper Examples

Our technology research paper examples address the impact of technological advancements on society, exploring issues related to digital communication, cybersecurity, and innovation.

Computer Forensics Research Paper
Genetic Engineering Research Paper
History of Technology Research Paper
Internet Research Paper
Nanotechnology Research Paper

Other Research Paper Examples

Abortion Research Paper
Adoption Research Paper
Animal Testing Research Paper
Bullying Research Paper
Diversity Research Paper
Divorce Research Paper
Drugs Research Paper
Environmental Issues Research Paper
Ethics Research Paper
Evolution Research Paper
Feminism Research Paper
Food Research Paper
Gender Research Paper
Globalization Research Paper
Juvenile Justice Research Paper
Law Research Paper
Management Research Paper
Philosophy Research Paper
Public Health Research Paper
Religion Research Paper
Science Research Paper
Social Sciences Research Paper
Statistics Research Paper
Other Sample Research Papers

Each category of research paper examples provided by iResearchNet serves as a valuable resource for students and researchers seeking to deepen their understanding of a specific field. By offering a comprehensive collection of well-researched and thoughtfully written papers, iResearchNet aims to support academic growth and encourage scholarly inquiry across diverse disciplines.

Sample Research Papers: To Read or Not to Read?

When you get an assignment to write a research paper, the first question you ask yourself is ‘Should I look for research paper examples?’ Maybe, I can deal with this task on my own without any help. Is it that difficult?

Thousands of students turn to our service every day for help. It does not mean that they cannot do their assignments on their own. They can, but the reason is different. Writing a research paper demands so much time and energy that asking for assistance seems to be a perfect solution. As the matter of fact, it is a perfect solution, especially, when you need to work to pay for your studying as well.

Firstly, if you search for research paper examples before you start writing, you can save your time significantly. You look at the example and you understand the gist of your assignment within several minutes. Secondly, when you examine some sample paper, you get to know all the requirements. You analyze the structure, the language, and the formatting details. Finally, reading examples helps students to overcome writer’s block, as other people’s ideas can motivate you to discover your own ideas.

The significance of research paper examples in the academic journey of students cannot be overstated. These examples serve not only as a blueprint for structuring and formatting academic papers but also as a beacon guiding students through the complex landscape of academic writing standards. iResearchNet recognizes the pivotal role that high-quality research paper examples play in fostering academic success and intellectual growth among students.

Blueprint for Academic Success

Research paper examples provided by iResearchNet are meticulously crafted to demonstrate the essential elements of effective academic writing. These examples offer clear insights into how to organize a paper, from the introductory paragraph, through the development of arguments and analysis, to the concluding remarks. They showcase the appropriate use of headings, subheadings, and the integration of tables, figures, and appendices, which collectively contribute to a well-organized and coherent piece of scholarly work. By studying these examples, students can gain a comprehensive understanding of the structure and formatting required in academic papers, which is crucial for meeting the rigorous standards of academic institutions.

Sparking Ideas and Providing Evidence

Beyond serving as a structural guide, research paper examples act as a source of inspiration for students embarking on their research projects. These examples illuminate a wide array of topics, methodologies, and analytical frameworks, thereby sparking ideas for students’ own research inquiries. They demonstrate how to effectively engage with existing literature, frame research questions, and develop a compelling thesis statement. Moreover, by presenting evidence and arguments in a logical and persuasive manner, these examples illustrate the art of substantiating claims with solid research, encouraging students to adopt a similar level of rigor and depth in their work.

Enhancing Research Skills

Engagement with high-quality research paper examples is instrumental in improving research skills among students. These examples expose students to various research methodologies, from qualitative case studies to quantitative analyses, enabling them to appreciate the breadth of research approaches applicable to their fields of study. By analyzing these examples, students learn how to critically evaluate sources, differentiate between primary and secondary data, and apply ethical considerations in research. Furthermore, these papers serve as a model for effectively citing sources, thereby teaching students the importance of academic integrity and the avoidance of plagiarism.

In essence, research paper examples are a fundamental resource that can significantly enhance the academic writing and research capabilities of students. iResearchNet’s commitment to providing access to a diverse collection of exemplary papers reflects its dedication to supporting academic excellence. Through these examples, students are equipped with the tools necessary to navigate the challenges of academic writing, foster innovative thinking, and contribute meaningfully to the scholarly community. By leveraging these resources, students can elevate their academic pursuits, ensuring their research is not only rigorous but also impactful.

Custom Research Paper Writing Services

In the academic journey, the ability to craft a compelling and meticulously researched paper is invaluable. Recognizing the challenges and pressures that students face, iResearchNet has developed a suite of research paper writing services designed to alleviate the burden of academic writing and research. Our services are tailored to meet the diverse needs of students across all academic disciplines, ensuring that every research paper not only meets but exceeds the rigorous standards of scholarly excellence. Below, we detail the multifaceted aspects of our research paper writing services, illustrating how iResearchNet stands as a beacon of support in the academic landscape.

At iResearchNet, we understand the pivotal role that research papers play in the academic and professional development of students. With this understanding at our core, we offer comprehensive writing services that cater to the intricate process of research paper creation. Our services are designed to guide students through every stage of the writing process, from initial research to final submission, ensuring clarity, coherence, and scholarly rigor.

The Need for Research Paper Writing Services

Navigating the complexities of academic writing and research can be a daunting task for many students. The challenges of identifying credible sources, synthesizing information, adhering to academic standards, and articulating arguments cohesively are significant. Furthermore, the pressures of tight deadlines and the high stakes of academic success can exacerbate the difficulties faced by students. iResearchNet’s research paper writing services are crafted to address these challenges head-on, providing expert assistance that empowers students to achieve their academic goals with confidence.

Why Choose iResearchNet

Selecting the right partner for research paper writing is a pivotal decision for students and researchers aiming for academic excellence. iResearchNet stands out as the premier choice for several compelling reasons, each designed to meet the diverse needs of our clientele and ensure their success.

Expert Writers : At iResearchNet, we pride ourselves on our team of expert writers who are not only masters in their respective fields but also possess a profound understanding of academic writing standards. With advanced degrees and extensive experience, our writers bring depth, insight, and precision to each paper, ensuring that your work is informed by the latest research and methodologies.
Top Quality : Quality is the cornerstone of our services. We adhere to rigorous quality control processes to ensure that every paper we deliver meets the highest standards of academic excellence. Our commitment to quality means thorough research, impeccable writing, and meticulous proofreading, resulting in work that not only meets but exceeds expectations.
Customized Solutions : Understanding that each research project has its unique challenges and requirements, iResearchNet offers customized solutions tailored to your specific needs. Whether you’re grappling with a complex research topic, a tight deadline, or specific formatting guidelines, our team is equipped to provide personalized support that aligns with your objectives.
Affordable Prices : We believe that access to high-quality research paper writing services should not be prohibitive. iResearchNet offers competitive pricing structures designed to provide value without compromising on quality. Our transparent pricing model ensures that you know exactly what you are paying for, with no hidden costs or surprises.
Timely Delivery : Meeting deadlines is critical in academic writing, and at iResearchNet, we take this seriously. Our efficient processes and dedicated team ensure that your paper is delivered on time, every time, allowing you to meet your academic deadlines with confidence.
24/7 Support : Our commitment to your success is reflected in our round-the-clock support. Whether you have a question about your order, need to communicate with your writer, or require assistance with any aspect of our service, our friendly and knowledgeable support team is available 24/7 to assist you.
Money-Back Guarantee : Your satisfaction is our top priority. iResearchNet offers a money-back guarantee, ensuring that if for any reason you are not satisfied with the work delivered, you are entitled to a refund. This policy underscores our confidence in the quality of our services and our dedication to your success.

Choosing iResearchNet for your research paper writing needs means partnering with a trusted provider committed to excellence, innovation, and customer satisfaction. Our unparalleled blend of expert writers, top-quality work, customized solutions, affordability, timely delivery, 24/7 support, and a money-back guarantee makes us the ideal choice for students and researchers seeking to elevate their academic performance.

How It Works: iResearchNet’s Streamlined Process

Navigating the process of obtaining a top-notch research paper has never been more straightforward, thanks to iResearchNet’s streamlined approach. Our user-friendly system ensures that from the moment you decide to place your order to the final receipt of your custom-written paper, every step is seamless, transparent, and tailored to your needs. Here’s how our comprehensive process works:

Place Your Order : Begin your journey to academic success by visiting our website and filling out the order form. Here, you’ll provide details about your research paper, including the topic, academic level, number of pages, formatting style, and any specific instructions or requirements. This initial step is crucial for us to understand your needs fully and match you with the most suitable writer.
Make Payment : Once your order details are confirmed, you’ll proceed to the payment section. Our platform offers a variety of secure payment options, ensuring that your transaction is safe and hassle-free. Our transparent pricing policy means you’ll know exactly what you’re paying for upfront, with no hidden fees.
Choose Your Writer : After payment, you’ll have the opportunity to choose a writer from our team of experts. Our writers are categorized based on their fields of expertise, academic qualifications, and customer feedback ratings. This step empowers you to select the writer who best matches your research paper’s requirements, ensuring a personalized and targeted approach to your project.
Receive Your Work : Our writer will commence work on your research paper, adhering to the specified guidelines and timelines. Throughout this process, you’ll have the ability to communicate directly with your writer, allowing for updates, revisions, and clarifications to ensure the final product meets your expectations. Once completed, your research paper will undergo a thorough quality check before being delivered to you via your chosen method.
Free Revisions : Your satisfaction is our priority. Upon receiving your research paper, you’ll have the opportunity to review the work and request any necessary revisions. iResearchNet offers free revisions within a specified period, ensuring that your final paper perfectly aligns with your academic requirements and expectations.

Our process is designed to provide you with a stress-free experience and a research paper that reflects your academic goals. From placing your order to enjoying the success of a well-written paper, iResearchNet is here to support you every step of the way.

Our Extras: Enhancing Your iResearchNet Experience

At iResearchNet, we are committed to offering more than just standard research paper writing services. We understand the importance of providing a comprehensive and personalized experience for each of our clients. That’s why we offer a range of additional services designed to enhance your experience and ensure your academic success. Here are the exclusive extras you can benefit from:

VIP Service : Elevate your iResearchNet experience with our VIP service, offering you priority treatment from the moment you place your order. This service ensures your projects are given first priority, with immediate attention from our team, and direct access to our top-tier writers and editors. VIP clients also benefit from our highest level of customer support, available to address any inquiries or needs with utmost urgency and personalized care.
Plagiarism Report : Integrity and originality are paramount in academic writing. To provide you with peace of mind, we offer a detailed plagiarism report with every research paper. This report is generated using advanced plagiarism detection software, ensuring that your work is unique and adheres to the highest standards of academic honesty.
Text Messages : Stay informed about your order’s progress with real-time updates sent directly to your phone. This service ensures you’re always in the loop, providing immediate notifications about key milestones, writer assignments, and any changes to your order status. With this added layer of communication, you can relax knowing that you’ll never miss an important update about your research paper.
Table of Contents : A well-organized research paper is key to guiding readers through your work. Our service includes the creation of a detailed table of contents, meticulously structured to reflect the main sections and subsections of your paper. This not only enhances the navigability of your document but also presents your research in a professional and academically appropriate format.
Abstract Page : The abstract page is your research paper’s first impression, summarizing the essential points of your study and its conclusions. Crafting a compelling abstract is an art, and our experts are skilled in highlighting the significance, methodology, results, and implications of your research succinctly and effectively. This service ensures that your paper makes a strong impact from the very beginning.
Editor’s Check : Before your research paper reaches you, it undergoes a final review by our team of experienced editors. This editor’s check is a comprehensive process that includes proofreading for grammar, punctuation, and spelling errors, as well as ensuring that the paper meets all your specifications and academic standards. This meticulous attention to detail guarantees that your paper is polished, professional, and ready for submission.

To ensure your research paper is of the highest quality and ready for submission, it undergoes a rigorous editor’s check. This final review process includes a thorough examination for any grammatical, punctuation, or spelling errors, as well as a verification that the paper meets all your specified requirements and academic standards. Our editors’ meticulous approach guarantees that your paper is polished, accurate, and exemplary.

By choosing iResearchNet and leveraging our extras, you can elevate the quality of your research paper and enjoy a customized, worry-free academic support experience.

A research paper is an academic piece of writing, so you need to follow all the requirements and standards. Otherwise, it will be impossible to get the high results. To make it easier for you, we have analyzed the structure and peculiarities of a sample research paper on the topic ‘Child Abuse’.

The paper includes 7300+ words, a detailed outline, citations are in APA formatting style, and bibliography with 28 sources.

To write any paper you need to write a great outline. This is the key to a perfect paper. When you organize your paper, it is easier for you to present the ideas logically, without jumping from one thought to another.

In the outline, you need to name all the parts of your paper. That is to say, an introduction, main body, conclusion, bibliography, some papers require abstract and proposal as well.

A good outline will serve as a guide through your paper making it easier for the reader to follow your ideas.

I. Introduction

Ii. estimates of child abuse: methodological limitations, iii. child abuse and neglect: the legalities, iv. corporal punishment versus child abuse, v. child abuse victims: the patterns, vi. child abuse perpetrators: the patterns, vii. explanations for child abuse, viii. consequences of child abuse and neglect, ix. determining abuse: how to tell whether a child is abused or neglected, x. determining abuse: interviewing children, xi. how can society help abused children and abusive families, introduction.

An introduction should include a thesis statement and the main points that you will discuss in the paper.

A thesis statement is one sentence in which you need to show your point of view. You will then develop this point of view through the whole piece of work:

‘The impact of child abuse affects more than one’s childhood, as the psychological and physical injuries often extend well into adulthood.’

Child abuse is a very real and prominent social problem today. The impact of child abuse affects more than one’s childhood, as the psychological and physical injuries often extend well into adulthood. Most children are defenseless against abuse, are dependent on their caretakers, and are unable to protect themselves from these acts.

Childhood serves as the basis for growth, development, and socialization. Throughout adolescence, children are taught how to become productive and positive, functioning members of society. Much of the socializing of children, particularly in their very earliest years, comes at the hands of family members. Unfortunately, the messages conveyed to and the actions against children by their families are not always the positive building blocks for which one would hope.

In 2008, the Children’s Defense Fund reported that each day in America, 2,421 children are confirmed as abused or neglected, 4 children are killed by abuse or neglect, and 78 babies die before their first birthday. These daily estimates translate into tremendous national figures. In 2006, caseworkers substantiated an estimated 905,000 reports of child abuse or neglect. Of these, 64% suffered neglect, 16% were physically abused, 9% were sexually abused, 7% were emotionally or psychologically maltreated, and 2% were medically neglected. In addition, 15% of the victims experienced “other” types of maltreatment such as abandonment, threats of harm to the child, and congenital drug addiction (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, 2006). Obviously, this problem is a substantial one.

In the main body, you dwell upon the topic of your paper. You provide your ideas and support them with evidence. The evidence include all the data and material you have found, analyzed and systematized. You can support your point of view with different statistical data, with surveys, and the results of different experiments. Your task is to show that your idea is right, and make the reader interested in the topic.

In this example, a writer analyzes the issue of child abuse: different statistical data, controversies regarding the topic, examples of the problem and the consequences.

Several issues arise when considering the amount of child abuse that occurs annually in the United States. Child abuse is very hard to estimate because much (or most) of it is not reported. Children who are abused are unlikely to report their victimization because they may not know any better, they still love their abusers and do not want to see them taken away (or do not themselves want to be taken away from their abusers), they have been threatened into not reporting, or they do not know to whom they should report their victimizations. Still further, children may report their abuse only to find the person to whom they report does not believe them or take any action on their behalf. Continuing to muddy the waters, child abuse can be disguised as legitimate injury, particularly because young children are often somewhat uncoordinated and are still learning to accomplish physical tasks, may not know their physical limitations, and are often legitimately injured during regular play. In the end, children rarely report child abuse; most often it is an adult who makes a report based on suspicion (e.g., teacher, counselor, doctor, etc.).

Even when child abuse is reported, social service agents and investigators may not follow up or substantiate reports for a variety of reasons. Parents can pretend, lie, or cover up injuries or stories of how injuries occurred when social service agents come to investigate. Further, there is not always agreement about what should be counted as abuse by service providers and researchers. In addition, social service agencies/agents have huge caseloads and may only be able to deal with the most serious forms of child abuse, leaving the more “minor” forms of abuse unsupervised and unmanaged (and uncounted in the statistical totals).

While most laws about child abuse and neglect fall at the state levels, federal legislation provides a foundation for states by identifying a minimum set of acts and behaviors that define child abuse and neglect. The Federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA), which stems from the Keeping Children and Families Safe Act of 2003, defines child abuse and neglect as, at minimum, “(1) any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse, or exploitation; or (2) an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk or serious harm.”

Using these minimum standards, each state is responsible for providing its own definition of maltreatment within civil and criminal statutes. When defining types of child abuse, many states incorporate similar elements and definitions into their legal statutes. For example, neglect is often defined as failure to provide for a child’s basic needs. Neglect can encompass physical elements (e.g., failure to provide necessary food or shelter, or lack of appropriate supervision), medical elements (e.g., failure to provide necessary medical or mental health treatment), educational elements (e.g., failure to educate a child or attend to special educational needs), and emotional elements (e.g., inattention to a child’s emotional needs, failure to provide psychological care, or permitting the child to use alcohol or other drugs). Failure to meet needs does not always mean a child is neglected, as situations such as poverty, cultural values, and community standards can influence the application of legal statutes. In addition, several states distinguish between failure to provide based on financial inability and failure to provide for no apparent financial reason.

Statutes on physical abuse typically include elements of physical injury (ranging from minor bruises to severe fractures or death) as a result of punching, beating, kicking, biting, shaking, throwing, stabbing, choking, hitting (with a hand, stick, strap, or other object), burning, or otherwise harming a child. Such injury is considered abuse regardless of the intention of the caretaker. In addition, many state statutes include allowing or encouraging another person to physically harm a child (such as noted above) as another form of physical abuse in and of itself. Sexual abuse usually includes activities by a parent or caretaker such as fondling a child’s genitals, penetration, incest, rape, sodomy, indecent exposure, and exploitation through prostitution or the production of pornographic materials.

Finally, emotional or psychological abuse typically is defined as a pattern of behavior that impairs a child’s emotional development or sense of self-worth. This may include constant criticism, threats, or rejection, as well as withholding love, support, or guidance. Emotional abuse is often the most difficult to prove and, therefore, child protective services may not be able to intervene without evidence of harm to the child. Some states suggest that harm may be evidenced by an observable or substantial change in behavior, emotional response, or cognition, or by anxiety, depression, withdrawal, or aggressive behavior. At a practical level, emotional abuse is almost always present when other types of abuse are identified.

Some states include an element of substance abuse in their statutes on child abuse. Circumstances that can be considered substance abuse include (a) the manufacture of a controlled substance in the presence of a child or on the premises occupied by a child (Colorado, Indiana, Iowa, Montana, South Dakota, Tennessee, and Virginia); (b) allowing a child to be present where the chemicals or equipment for the manufacture of controlled substances are used (Arizona, New Mexico); (c) selling, distributing, or giving drugs or alcohol to a child (Florida, Hawaii, Illinois, Minnesota, and Texas); (d) use of a controlled substance by a caregiver that impairs the caregiver’s ability to adequately care for the child (Kentucky, New York, Rhode Island, and Texas); and (e) exposure of the child to drug paraphernalia (North Dakota), the criminal sale or distribution of drugs (Montana, Virginia), or drug-related activity (District of Columbia).

One of the most difficult issues with which the U.S. legal system must contend is that of allowing parents the right to use corporal punishment when disciplining a child, while not letting them cross over the line into the realm of child abuse. Some parents may abuse their children under the guise of discipline, and many instances of child abuse arise from angry parents who go too far when disciplining their children with physical punishment. Generally, state statutes use terms such as “reasonable discipline of a minor,” “causes only temporary, short-term pain,” and may cause “the potential for bruising” but not “permanent damage, disability, disfigurement or injury” to the child as ways of indicating the types of discipline behaviors that are legal. However, corporal punishment that is “excessive,” “malicious,” “endangers the bodily safety of,” or is “an intentional infliction of injury” is not allowed under most state statutes (e.g., state of Florida child abuse statute).

Most research finds that the use of physical punishment (most often spanking) is not an effective method of discipline. The literature on this issue tends to find that spanking stops misbehavior, but no more effectively than other firm measures. Further, it seems to hinder rather than improve general compliance/obedience (particularly when the child is not in the presence of the punisher). Researchers have also explained why physical punishment is not any more effective at gaining child compliance than nonviolent forms of discipline. Some of the problems that arise when parents use spanking or other forms of physical punishment include the fact that spanking does not teach what children should do, nor does it provide them with alternative behavior options should the circumstance arise again. Spanking also undermines reasoning, explanation, or other forms of parental instruction because children cannot learn, reason, or problem solve well while experiencing threat, pain, fear, or anger. Further, the use of physical punishment is inconsistent with nonviolent principles, or parental modeling. In addition, the use of spanking chips away at the bonds of affection between parents and children, and tends to induce resentment and fear. Finally, it hinders the development of empathy and compassion in children, and they do not learn to take responsibility for their own behavior (Pitzer, 1997).

One of the biggest problems with the use of corporal punishment is that it can escalate into much more severe forms of violence. Usually, parents spank because they are angry (and somewhat out of control) and they can’t think of other ways to discipline. When parents are acting as a result of emotional triggers, the notion of discipline is lost while punishment and pain become the foci.

In 2006, of the children who were found to be victims of child abuse, nearly 75% of them were first-time victims (or had not come to the attention of authorities prior). A slight majority of child abuse victims were girls—51.5%, compared to 48% of abuse victims being boys. The younger the child, the more at risk he or she is for child abuse and neglect victimization. Specifically, the rate for infants (birth to 1 year old) was approximately 24 per 1,000 children of the same age group. The victimization rate for children 1–3 years old was 14 per 1,000 children of the same age group. The abuse rate for children aged 4– 7 years old declined further to 13 per 1,000 children of the same age group. African American, American Indian, and Alaska Native children, as well as children of multiple races, had the highest rates of victimization. White and Latino children had lower rates, and Asian children had the lowest rates of child abuse and neglect victimization. Regarding living arrangements, nearly 27% of victims were living with a single mother, 20% were living with married parents, while 22% were living with both parents but the marital status was unknown. (This reporting element had nearly 40% missing data, however.) Regarding disability, nearly 8% of child abuse victims had some degree of mental retardation, emotional disturbance, visual or hearing impairment, learning disability, physical disability, behavioral problems, or other medical problems. Unfortunately, data indicate that for many victims, the efforts of the child protection services system were not successful in preventing subsequent victimization. Children who had been prior victims of maltreatment were 96% more likely to experience another occurrence than those who were not prior victims. Further, child victims who were reported to have a disability were 52% more likely to experience recurrence than children without a disability. Finally, the oldest victims (16–21 years of age) were the least likely to experience a recurrence, and were 51% less likely to be victimized again than were infants (younger than age 1) (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, 2006).

Child fatalities are the most tragic consequence of maltreatment. Yet, each year, children die from abuse and neglect. In 2006, an estimated 1,530 children in the United States died due to abuse or neglect. The overall rate of child fatalities was 2 deaths per 100,000 children. More than 40% of child fatalities were attributed to neglect, but physical abuse also was a major contributor. Approximately 78% of the children who died due to child abuse and neglect were younger than 4 years old, and infant boys (younger than 1) had the highest rate of fatalities at 18.5 deaths per 100,000 boys of the same age in the national population. Infant girls had a rate of 14.7 deaths per 100,000 girls of the same age (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, 2006).

One question to be addressed regarding child fatalities is why infants have such a high rate of death when compared to toddlers and adolescents. Children under 1 year old pose an immense amount of responsibility for their caretakers: they are completely dependent and need constant attention. Children this age are needy, impulsive, and not amenable to verbal control or effective communication. This can easily overwhelm vulnerable parents. Another difficulty associated with infants is that they are physically weak and small. Injuries to infants can be fatal, while similar injuries to older children might not be. The most common cause of death in children less than 1 year is cerebral trauma (often the result of shaken-baby syndrome). Exasperated parents can deliver shakes or blows without realizing how little it takes to cause irreparable or fatal damage to an infant. Research informs us that two of the most common triggers for fatal child abuse are crying that will not cease and toileting accidents. Both of these circumstances are common in infants and toddlers whose only means of communication often is crying, and who are limited in mobility and cannot use the toilet. Finally, very young children cannot assist in injury diagnoses. Children who have been injured due to abuse or neglect often cannot communicate to medical professionals about where it hurts, how it hurts, and so forth. Also, nonfatal injuries can turn fatal in the absence of care by neglectful parents or parents who do not want medical professionals to possibly identify an injury as being the result of abuse.

Estimates reveal that nearly 80% of perpetrators of child abuse were parents of the victim. Other relatives accounted for nearly 7%, and unmarried partners of parents made up 4% of perpetrators. Of those perpetrators that were parents, over 90% were biological parents, 4% were stepparents, and 0.7% were adoptive parents. Of this group, approximately 58% of perpetrators were women and 42% were men. Women perpetrators are typically younger than men. The average age for women abusers was 31 years old, while for men the average was 34 years old. Forty percent of women who abused were younger than 30 years of age, compared with 33% of men being under 30. The racial distribution of perpetrators is similar to that of victims. Fifty-four percent were white, 21% were African American, and 20% were Hispanic/Latino (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, 2006).

There are many factors that are associated with child abuse. Some of the more common/well-accepted explanations are individual pathology, parent–child interaction, past abuse in the family (or social learning), situational factors, and cultural support for physical punishment along with a lack of cultural support for helping parents here in the United States.

The first explanation centers on the individual pathology of a parent or caretaker who is abusive. This theory focuses on the idea that people who abuse their children have something wrong with their individual personality or biological makeup. Such psychological pathologies may include having anger control problems; being depressed or having post-partum depression; having a low tolerance for frustration (e.g., children can be extremely frustrating: they don’t always listen; they constantly push the line of how far they can go; and once the line has been established, they are constantly treading on it to make sure it hasn’t moved. They are dependent and self-centered, so caretakers have very little privacy or time to themselves); being rigid (e.g., having no tolerance for differences—for example, what if your son wanted to play with dolls? A rigid father would not let him, laugh at him for wanting to, punish him when he does, etc.); having deficits in empathy (parents who cannot put themselves in the shoes of their children cannot fully understand what their children need emotionally); or being disorganized, inefficient, and ineffectual. (Parents who are unable to manage their own lives are unlikely to be successful at managing the lives of their children, and since many children want and need limits, these parents are unable to set them or adhere to them.)

Biological pathologies that may increase the likelihood of someone becoming a child abuser include having substance abuse or dependence problems, or having persistent or reoccurring physical health problems (especially health problems that can be extremely painful and can cause a person to become more self-absorbed, both qualities that can give rise to a lack of patience, lower frustration tolerance, and increased stress).

The second explanation for child abuse centers on the interaction between the parent and the child, noting that certain types of parents are more likely to abuse, and certain types of children are more likely to be abused, and when these less-skilled parents are coupled with these more difficult children, child abuse is the most likely to occur. Discussion here focuses on what makes a parent less skilled, and what makes a child more difficult. Characteristics of unskilled parents are likely to include such traits as only pointing out what children do wrong and never giving any encouragement for good behavior, and failing to be sensitive to the emotional needs of children. Less skilled parents tend to have unrealistic expectations of children. They may engage in role reversal— where the parents make the child take care of them—and view the parent’s happiness and well-being as the responsibility of the child. Some parents view the parental role as extremely stressful and experience little enjoyment from being a parent. Finally, less-skilled parents tend to have more negative perceptions regarding their child(ren). For example, perhaps the child has a different shade of skin than they expected and this may disappoint or anger them, they may feel the child is being manipulative (long before children have this capability), or they may view the child as the scapegoat for all the parents’ or family’s problems. Theoretically, parents with these characteristics would be more likely to abuse their children, but if they are coupled with having a difficult child, they would be especially likely to be abusive. So, what makes a child more difficult? Certainly, through no fault of their own, children may have characteristics that are associated with child care that is more demanding and difficult than in the “normal” or “average” situation. Such characteristics can include having physical and mental disabilities (autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [ADHD], hyperactivity, etc.); the child may be colicky, frequently sick, be particularly needy, or cry more often. In addition, some babies are simply unhappier than other babies for reasons that cannot be known. Further, infants are difficult even in the best of circumstances. They are unable to communicate effectively, and they are completely dependent on their caretakers for everything, including eating, diaper changing, moving around, entertainment, and emotional bonding. Again, these types of children, being more difficult, are more likely to be victims of child abuse.

Nonetheless, each of these types of parents and children alone cannot explain the abuse of children, but it is the interaction between them that becomes the key. Unskilled parents may produce children that are happy and not as needy, and even though they are unskilled, they do not abuse because the child takes less effort. At the same time, children who are more difficult may have parents who are skilled and are able to handle and manage the extra effort these children take with aplomb. However, risks for child abuse increase when unskilled parents must contend with difficult children.

Social learning or past abuse in the family is a third common explanation for child abuse. Here, the theory concentrates not only on what children learn when they see or experience violence in their homes, but additionally on what they do not learn as a result of these experiences. Social learning theory in the context of family violence stresses that if children are abused or see abuse (toward siblings or a parent), those interactions and violent family members become the representations and role models for their future familial interactions. In this way, what children learn is just as important as what they do not learn. Children who witness or experience violence may learn that this is the way parents deal with children, or that violence is an acceptable method of child rearing and discipline. They may think when they become parents that “violence worked on me when I was a child, and I turned out fine.” They may learn unhealthy relationship interaction patterns; children may witness the negative interactions of parents and they may learn the maladaptive or violent methods of expressing anger, reacting to stress, or coping with conflict.

What is equally as important, though, is that they are unlikely to learn more acceptable and nonviolent ways of rearing children, interacting with family members, and working out conflict. Here it may happen that an adult who was abused as a child would like to be nonviolent toward his or her own children, but when the chips are down and the child is misbehaving, this abused-child-turned-adult does not have a repertoire of nonviolent strategies to try. This parent is more likely to fall back on what he or she knows as methods of discipline.

Something important to note here is that not all abused children grow up to become abusive adults. Children who break the cycle were often able to establish and maintain one healthy emotional relationship with someone during their childhoods (or period of young adulthood). For instance, they may have received emotional support from a nonabusing parent, or they received social support and had a positive relationship with another adult during their childhood (e.g., teacher, coach, minister, neighbor, etc.). Abused children who participate in therapy during some period of their lives can often break the cycle of violence. In addition, adults who were abused but are able to form an emotionally supportive and satisfying relationship with a mate can make the transition to being nonviolent in their family interactions.

Moving on to a fourth familiar explanation for child abuse, there are some common situational factors that influence families and parents and increase the risks for child abuse. Typically, these are factors that increase family stress or social isolation. Specifically, such factors may include receiving public assistance or having low socioeconomic status (a combination of low income and low education). Other factors include having family members who are unemployed, underemployed (working in a job that requires lower qualifications than an individual possesses), or employed only part time. These financial difficulties cause great stress for families in meeting the needs of the individual members. Other stress-inducing familial characteristics are single-parent households and larger family size. Finally, social isolation can be devastating for families and family members. Having friends to talk to, who can be relied upon, and with whom kids can be dropped off occasionally is tremendously important for personal growth and satisfaction in life. In addition, social isolation and stress can cause individuals to be quick to lose their tempers, as well as cause people to be less rational in their decision making and to make mountains out of mole hills. These situations can lead families to be at greater risk for child abuse.

Finally, cultural views and supports (or lack thereof) can lead to greater amounts of child abuse in a society such as the United States. One such cultural view is that of societal support for physical punishment. This is problematic because there are similarities between the way criminals are dealt with and the way errant children are handled. The use of capital punishment is advocated for seriously violent criminals, and people are quick to use such idioms as “spare the rod and spoil the child” when it comes to the discipline or punishment of children. In fact, it was not until quite recently that parenting books began to encourage parents to use other strategies than spanking or other forms of corporal punishment in the discipline of their children. Only recently, the American Academy of Pediatrics has come out and recommended that parents do not spank or use other forms of violence on their children because of the deleterious effects such methods have on youngsters and their bonds with their parents. Nevertheless, regardless of recommendations, the culture of corporal punishment persists.

Another cultural view in the United States that can give rise to greater incidents of child abuse is the belief that after getting married, couples of course should want and have children. Culturally, Americans consider that children are a blessing, raising kids is the most wonderful thing a person can do, and everyone should have children. Along with this notion is the idea that motherhood is always wonderful; it is the most fulfilling thing a woman can do; and the bond between a mother and her child is strong, glorious, and automatic—all women love being mothers. Thus, culturally (and theoretically), society nearly insists that married couples have children and that they will love having children. But, after children are born, there is not much support for couples who have trouble adjusting to parenthood, or who do not absolutely love their new roles as parents. People look askance at parents who need help, and cannot believe parents who say anything negative about parenthood. As such, theoretically, society has set up a situation where couples are strongly encouraged to have kids, are told they will love kids, but then society turns a blind or disdainful eye when these same parents need emotional, financial, or other forms of help or support. It is these types of cultural viewpoints that increase the risks for child abuse in society.

The consequences of child abuse are tremendous and long lasting. Research has shown that the traumatic experience of childhood abuse is life changing. These costs may surface during adolescence, or they may not become evident until abused children have grown up and become abusing parents or abused spouses. Early identification and treatment is important to minimize these potential long-term effects. Whenever children say they have been abused, it is imperative that they be taken seriously and their abuse be reported. Suspicions of child abuse must be reported as well. If there is a possibility that a child is or has been abused, an investigation must be conducted.

Children who have been abused may exhibit traits such as the inability to love or have faith in others. This often translates into adults who are unable to establish lasting and stable personal relationships. These individuals have trouble with physical closeness and touching as well as emotional intimacy and trust. Further, these qualities tend to cause a fear of entering into new relationships, as well as the sabotaging of any current ones.

Psychologically, children who have been abused tend to have poor self-images or are passive, withdrawn, or clingy. They may be angry individuals who are filled with rage, anxiety, and a variety of fears. They are often aggressive, disruptive, and depressed. Many abused children have flashbacks and nightmares about the abuse they have experienced, and this may cause sleep problems as well as drug and alcohol problems. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and antisocial personality disorder are both typical among maltreated children. Research has also shown that most abused children fail to reach “successful psychosocial functioning,” and are thus not resilient and do not resume a “normal life” after the abuse has ended.

Socially (and likely because of these psychological injuries), abused children have trouble in school, will have difficulty getting and remaining employed, and may commit a variety of illegal or socially inappropriate behaviors. Many studies have shown that victims of child abuse are likely to participate in high-risk behaviors such as alcohol or drug abuse, the use of tobacco, and high-risk sexual behaviors (e.g., unprotected sex, large numbers of sexual partners). Later in life, abused children are more likely to have been arrested and homeless. They are also less able to defend themselves in conflict situations and guard themselves against repeated victimizations.

Medically, abused children likely will experience health problems due to the high frequency of physical injuries they receive. In addition, abused children experience a great deal of emotional turmoil and stress, which can also have a significant impact on their physical condition. These health problems are likely to continue occurring into adulthood. Some of these longer-lasting health problems include headaches; eating problems; problems with toileting; and chronic pain in the back, stomach, chest, and genital areas. Some researchers have noted that abused children may experience neurological impairment and problems with intellectual functioning, while others have found a correlation between abuse and heart, lung, and liver disease, as well as cancer (Thomas, 2004).

Victims of sexual abuse show an alarming number of disturbances as adults. Some dislike and avoid sex, or experience sexual problems or disorders, while other victims appear to enjoy sexual activities that are self-defeating or maladaptive—normally called “dysfunctional sexual behavior”—and have many sexual partners.

Abused children also experience a wide variety of developmental delays. Many do not reach physical, cognitive, or emotional developmental milestones at the typical time, and some never accomplish what they are supposed to during childhood socialization. In the next section, these developmental delays are discussed as a means of identifying children who may be abused.

There are two primary ways of identifying children who are abused: spotting and evaluating physical injuries, and detecting and appraising developmental delays. Distinguishing physical injuries due to abuse can be difficult, particularly among younger children who are likely to get hurt or receive injuries while they are playing and learning to become ambulatory. Nonetheless, there are several types of wounds that children are unlikely to give themselves during their normal course of play and exploration. These less likely injuries may signal instances of child abuse.

While it is true that children are likely to get bruises, particularly when they are learning to walk or crawl, bruises on infants are not normal. Also, the back of the legs, upper arms, or on the chest, neck, head, or genitals are also locations where bruises are unlikely to occur during normal childhood activity. Further, bruises with clean patterns, like hand prints, buckle prints, or hangers (to name a few), are good examples of the types of bruises children do not give themselves.

Another area of physical injury where the source of the injury can be difficult to detect is fractures. Again, children fall out of trees, or crash their bikes, and can break limbs. These can be normal parts of growing up. However, fractures in infants less than 12 months old are particularly suspect, as infants are unlikely to be able to accomplish the types of movement necessary to actually break a leg or an arm. Further, multiple fractures, particularly more than one on a bone, should be examined more closely. Spiral or torsion fractures (when the bone is broken by twisting) are suspect because when children break their bones due to play injuries, the fractures are usually some other type (e.g., linear, oblique, compacted). In addition, when parents don’t know about the fracture(s) or how it occurred, abuse should be considered, because when children get these types of injuries, they need comfort and attention.

Head and internal injuries are also those that may signal abuse. Serious blows to the head cause internal head injuries, and this is very different from the injuries that result from bumping into things. Abused children are also likely to experience internal injuries like those to the abdomen, liver, kidney, and bladder. They may suffer a ruptured spleen, or intestinal perforation. These types of damages rarely happen by accident.

Burns are another type of physical injury that can happen by accident or by abuse. Nevertheless, there are ways to tell these types of burn injuries apart. The types of burns that should be examined and investigated are those where the burns are in particular locations. Burns to the bottom of the feet, genitals, abdomen, or other inaccessible spots should be closely considered. Burns of the whole hand or those to the buttocks are also unlikely to happen as a result of an accident.

Turning to the detection and appraisal of developmental delays, one can more readily assess possible abuse by considering what children of various ages should be able to accomplish, than by noting when children are delayed and how many milestones on which they are behind schedule. Importantly, a few delays in reaching milestones can be expected, since children develop individually and not always according to the norm. Nonetheless, when children are abused, their development is likely to be delayed in numerous areas and across many milestones.

As children develop and grow, they should be able to crawl, walk, run, talk, control going to the bathroom, write, set priorities, plan ahead, trust others, make friends, develop a good self-image, differentiate between feeling and behavior, and get their needs met in appropriate ways. As such, when children do not accomplish these feats, their circumstances should be examined.

Infants who are abused or neglected typically develop what is termed failure to thrive syndrome. This syndrome is characterized by slow, inadequate growth, or not “filling out” physically. They have a pale, colorless complexion and dull eyes. They are not likely to spend much time looking around, and nothing catches their eyes. They may show other signs of lack of nutrition such as cuts, bruises that do not heal in a timely way, and discolored fingernails. They are also not trusting and may not cry much, as they are not expecting to have their needs met. Older infants may not have developed any language skills, or these developments are quite slow. This includes both verbal and nonverbal means of communication.

Toddlers who are abused often become hypervigilant about their environments and others’ moods. They are more outwardly focused than a typical toddler (who is quite self-centered) and may be unable to separate themselves as individuals, or consider themselves as distinct beings. In this way, abused toddlers cannot focus on tasks at hand because they are too concerned about others’ reactions. They don’t play with toys, have no interest in exploration, and seem unable to enjoy life. They are likely to accept losses with little reaction, and may have age-inappropriate knowledge of sex and sexual relations. Finally, toddlers, whether they are abused or not, begin to mirror their parents’ behaviors. Thus, toddlers who are abused may mimic the abuse when they are playing with dolls or “playing house.”

Developmental delays can also be detected among abused young adolescents. Some signs include the failure to learn cause and effect, since their parents are so inconsistent. They have no energy for learning and have not developed beyond one- or two-word commands. They probably cannot follow complicated directions (such as two to three tasks per instruction), and they are unlikely to be able to think for themselves. Typically, they have learned that failure is totally unacceptable, but they are more concerned with the teacher’s mood than with learning and listening to instruction. Finally, they are apt to have been inadequately toilet trained and thus may be unable to control their bladders.

Older adolescents, because they are likely to have been abused for a longer period of time, continue to get further and further behind in their developmental achievements. Abused children this age become family nurturers. They take care of their parents and cater to their parents’ needs, rather than the other way around. In addition, they probably take care of any younger siblings and do the household chores. Because of these default responsibilities, they usually do not participate in school activities; they frequently miss days at school; and they have few, if any, friends. Because they have become so hypervigilant and have increasingly delayed development, they lose interest in and become disillusioned with education. They develop low self-esteem and little confidence, but seem old for their years. Children this age who are abused are still likely to be unable to control their bladders and may have frequent toileting accidents.

Other developmental delays can occur and be observed in abused and neglected children of any age. For example, malnutrition and withdrawal can be noticed in infants through teenagers. Maltreated children frequently have persistent or untreated illnesses, and these can become permanent disabilities if medical conditions go untreated for a long enough time. Another example can be the consequences of neurological damage. Beyond being a medical issue, this type of damage can cause problems with social behavior and impulse control, which, again, can be discerned in various ages of children.

Once child abuse is suspected, law enforcement officers, child protection workers, or various other practitioners may need to interview the child about the abuse or neglect he or she may have suffered. Interviewing children can be extremely difficult because children at various stages of development can remember only certain parts or aspects of the events in their lives. Also, interviewers must be careful that they do not put ideas or answers into the heads of the children they are interviewing. There are several general recommendations when interviewing children about the abuse they may have experienced. First, interviewers must acknowledge that even when children are abused, they likely still love their parents. They do not want to be taken away from their parents, nor do they want to see their parents get into trouble. Interviewers must not blame the parents or be judgmental about them or the child’s family. Beyond that, interviews should take place in a safe, neutral location. Interviewers can use dolls and role-play to help children express the types of abuse of which they may be victims.

Finally, interviewers must ask age-appropriate questions. For example, 3-year-olds can probably only answer questions about what happened and who was involved. Four- to five-year-olds can also discuss where the incidents occurred. Along with what, who, and where, 6- to 8-year-olds can talk about the element of time, or when the abuse occurred. Nine- to 10-year-olds are able to add commentary about the number of times the abuse occurred. Finally, 11-year-olds and older children can additionally inform interviewers about the circumstances of abusive instances.

A conclusion is not a summary of what a writer has already mentioned. On the contrary, it is the last point made. Taking every detail of the investigation, the researcher makes the concluding point. In this part of a paper, you need to put a full stop in your research. You need to persuade the reader in your opinion.

Never add any new information in the conclusion. You can present solutions to the problem and you dwell upon the results, but only if this information has been already mentioned in the main body.

Child advocates recommend a variety of strategies to aid families and children experiencing abuse. These recommendations tend to focus on societal efforts as well as more individual efforts. One common strategy advocated is the use of public service announcements that encourage individuals to report any suspected child abuse. Currently, many mandatory reporters (those required by law to report abuse such as teachers, doctors, and social service agency employees) and members of communities feel that child abuse should not be reported unless there is substantial evidence that abuse is indeed occurring. Child advocates stress that this notion should be changed, and that people should report child abuse even if it is only suspected. Public service announcements should stress that if people report suspected child abuse, the worst that can happen is that they might be wrong, but in the grander scheme of things that is really not so bad.

Child advocates also stress that greater interagency cooperation is needed. This cooperation should be evident between women’s shelters, child protection agencies, programs for at-risk children, medical agencies, and law enforcement officers. These agencies typically do not share information, and if they did, more instances of child abuse would come to the attention of various authorities and could be investigated and managed. Along these lines, child protection agencies and programs should receive more funding. When budgets are cut, social services are often the first things to go or to get less financial support. Child advocates insist that with more resources, child protection agencies could hire more workers, handle more cases, conduct more investigations, and follow up with more children and families.

Continuing, more educational efforts must be initiated about issues such as punishment and discipline styles and strategies; having greater respect for children; as well as informing the community about what child abuse is, and how to recognize it. In addition, Americans must alter the cultural orientation about child bearing and child rearing. Couples who wish to remain child-free must be allowed to do so without disdain. And, it must be acknowledged that raising children is very difficult, is not always gloriously wonderful, and that parents who seek help should be lauded and not criticized. These kinds of efforts can help more children to be raised in nonviolent, emotionally satisfying families, and thus become better adults.

Bibliography

When you write a paper, make sure you are aware of all the formatting requirements. Incorrect formatting can lower your mark, so do not underestimate the importance of this part.

Organizing your bibliography is quite a tedious and time-consuming task. Still, you need to do it flawlessly. For this reason, analyze all the standards you need to meet or ask professionals to help you with it. All the comas, colons, brackets etc. matter. They truly do.

Bibliography:

American Academy of Pediatrics: https://www.aap.org/
Bancroft, L., & Silverman, J. G. (2002). The batterer as parent. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, 42 U.S.C.A. § 5106g (1998).
Childhelp: Child Abuse Statistics: https://www.childhelp.org/child-abuse-statistics/
Children’s Defense Fund: https://www.childrensdefense.org/
Child Stats.gov: https://www.childstats.gov/
Child Welfare League of America: https://www.cwla.org/
Crosson-Tower, C. (2008). Understanding child abuse and neglect (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
DeBecker, G. (1999). Protecting the gift: Keeping children and teenagers safe (and parents sane). New York: Bantam Dell.
Family Research Laboratory at the University of New Hampshire: https://cola.unh.edu/family-research-laboratory
Guterman, N. B. (2001). Stopping child maltreatment before it starts: Emerging horizons in early home visitation services. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Herman, J. L. (2000). Father-daughter incest. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Medline Plus, Child Abuse: https://medlineplus.gov/childabuse.html
Myers, J. E. B. (Ed.). (1994). The backlash: Child protection under fire. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
National Center for Missing and Exploited Children: https://www.missingkids.org/home
National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System. (2006). Child maltreatment 2006: Reports from the states to the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families.
New York University Silver School of Social Work: https://socialwork.nyu.edu/
Pitzer, R. L. (1997). Corporal punishment in the discipline of children in the home: Research update for practitioners. Paper presented at the National Council on Family Relations Annual Conference, Washington, DC.
RAND, Child Abuse and Neglect: https://www.rand.org/topics/child-abuse-and-neglect.html
Richards, C. E. (2001). The loss of innocents: Child killers and their victims. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources.
Straus, M. A. (2001). Beating the devil out of them: Corporal punishment in American families and its effects on children. Edison, NJ: Transaction.
Thomas, P. M. (2004). Protection, dissociation, and internal roles: Modeling and treating the effects of child abuse. Review of General Psychology, 7(15).
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families: https://www.acf.hhs.gov/

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Research Paper Guide

Research Paper Example

Research Paper Examples - Free Sample Papers for Different Formats!

Research Paper Example for Different Formats

Following a specific formatting style is essential while writing a research paper . Knowing the conventions and guidelines for each format can help you in creating a perfect paper. Here we have gathered examples of research paper for most commonly applied citation styles :

Social Media and Social Media Marketing: A Literature Review

APA Research Paper Example

APA (American Psychological Association) style is commonly used in social sciences, psychology, and education. This format is recognized for its clear and concise writing, emphasis on proper citations, and orderly presentation of ideas.

Here are some research paper examples in APA style:

Research Paper Example APA 7th Edition

Research Paper Example MLA

MLA (Modern Language Association) style is frequently employed in humanities disciplines, including literature, languages, and cultural studies. An MLA research paper might explore literature analysis, linguistic studies, or historical research within the humanities.

Here is an example:

Found Voices: Carl Sagan

Research Paper Example Chicago

Chicago style is utilized in various fields like history, arts, and social sciences. Research papers in Chicago style could delve into historical events, artistic analyses, or social science inquiries.

Here is a research paper formatted in Chicago style:

Chicago Research Paper Sample

Research Paper Example Harvard

Harvard style is widely used in business, management, and some social sciences. Research papers in Harvard style might address business strategies, case studies, or social policies.

View this sample Harvard style paper here:

Harvard Research Paper Sample

Examples for Different Research Paper Parts

A research paper has different parts. Each part is important for the overall success of the paper. Chapters in a research paper must be written correctly, using a certain format and structure.

The following are examples of how different sections of the research paper can be written.

Research Proposal

The research proposal acts as a detailed plan or roadmap for your study, outlining the focus of your research and its significance. It's essential as it not only guides your research but also persuades others about the value of your study.

Example of Research Proposal

An abstract serves as a concise overview of your entire research paper. It provides a quick insight into the main elements of your study. It summarizes your research's purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions in a brief format.

Research Paper Example Abstract

Literature Review

A literature review summarizes the existing research on your study's topic, showcasing what has already been explored. This section adds credibility to your own research by analyzing and summarizing prior studies related to your topic.

Literature Review Research Paper Example

Methodology

The methodology section functions as a detailed explanation of how you conducted your research. This part covers the tools, techniques, and steps used to collect and analyze data for your study.

Methods Section of Research Paper Example

How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper

The conclusion summarizes your findings, their significance and the impact of your research. This section outlines the key takeaways and the broader implications of your study's results.

Research Paper Conclusion Example

Research Paper Examples for Different Fields

Research papers can be about any subject that needs a detailed study. The following examples show research papers for different subjects.

History Research Paper Sample

Preparing a history research paper involves investigating and presenting information about past events. This may include exploring perspectives, analyzing sources, and constructing a narrative that explains the significance of historical events.

View this history research paper sample:

Many Faces of Generalissimo Fransisco Franco

Sociology Research Paper Sample

In sociology research, statistics and data are harnessed to explore societal issues within a particular region or group. These findings are thoroughly analyzed to gain an understanding of the structure and dynamics present within these communities.

Here is a sample:

A Descriptive Statistical Analysis within the State of Virginia

Science Fair Research Paper Sample

A science research paper involves explaining a scientific experiment or project. It includes outlining the purpose, procedures, observations, and results of the experiment in a clear, logical manner.

Here are some examples:

Science Fair Paper Format

What Do I Need To Do For The Science Fair?

Psychology Research Paper Sample

Writing a psychology research paper involves studying human behavior and mental processes. This process includes conducting experiments, gathering data, and analyzing results to understand the human mind, emotions, and behavior.

Here is an example psychology paper:

The Effects of Food Deprivation on Concentration and Perseverance

Art History Research Paper Sample

Studying art history includes examining artworks, understanding their historical context, and learning about the artists. This helps analyze and interpret how art has evolved over various periods and regions.

Check out this sample paper analyzing European art and impacts:

European Art History: A Primer

Research Paper Example Outline

Before you plan on writing a well-researched paper, make a rough draft. An outline can be a great help when it comes to organizing vast amounts of research material for your paper.

Here is an outline of a research paper example:

A. Title of the Research Paper
B. Author's Name
C. Institutional Affiliation
D. Course Information
E. Date

A. Purpose of the Study
B. Research Questions/Objectives
C. Methodology
D. Key Findings
E. Conclusion

A. Background Information
B. Statement of the Problem
C. Significance of the Study
D. Research Objectives/Hypothesis
E. Structure of the Paper

A. Overview of Relevant Literature
B. Key Theories or Concepts
C. Discussion of Previous Studies
D. Gaps in the Existing Literature
E. Theoretical Framework

A. Research Design
B. Participants or Sample
C. Data Collection Methods
D. Data Analysis Techniques
E. Limitations

A. Presentation of Findings
B. Data Analysis
C. Tables, Graphs, or Figures (if applicable)
D. Interpretation of Results

A. Summary of Findings
B. Comparison with Literature
C. Implications of the Results
D. Limitations and Future Research
E. Conclusion

A. Summary of the Study
B. Contribution to the Field
C. Recommendations
D. Concluding Remarks

A. Citations in APA/MLA/Chicago style
B. Books, Articles, Journals, and Other Sources Cited

Here is a downloadable sample of a standard research paper outline:

Research Paper Outline

Want to create the perfect outline for your paper? Check out this in-depth guide on creating a research paper outline for a structured paper!

Good Research Paper Examples for Students

Here are some more samples of research paper for students to learn from:

Fiscal Research Center - Action Plan

Qualitative Research Paper Example

Research Paper Example Introduction

How to Write a Research Paper Example

Research Paper Example for High School

Now that you have explored the research paper examples, you can start working on your research project. Hopefully, these examples will help you understand the writing process for a research paper.

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Home » Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and Templates

Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and Templates

Table of Contents

Research paper format is an essential aspect of academic writing that plays a crucial role in the communication of research findings . The format of a research paper depends on various factors such as the discipline, style guide, and purpose of the research. It includes guidelines for the structure, citation style, referencing , and other elements of the paper that contribute to its overall presentation and coherence. Adhering to the appropriate research paper format is vital for ensuring that the research is accurately and effectively communicated to the intended audience. In this era of information, it is essential to understand the different research paper formats and their guidelines to communicate research effectively, accurately, and with the required level of detail. This post aims to provide an overview of some of the common research paper formats used in academic writing.

Research Paper Formats

Research Paper Formats are as follows:

APA (American Psychological Association) format
MLA (Modern Language Association) format
Chicago/Turabian style
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) format
AMA (American Medical Association) style
Harvard style
Vancouver style
ACS (American Chemical Society) style
ASA (American Sociological Association) style
APSA (American Political Science Association) style

APA (American Psychological Association) Format

Here is a general APA format for a research paper:

Title Page: The title page should include the title of your paper, your name, and your institutional affiliation. It should also include a running head, which is a shortened version of the title, and a page number in the upper right-hand corner.
Abstract : The abstract is a brief summary of your paper, typically 150-250 words. It should include the purpose of your research, the main findings, and any implications or conclusions that can be drawn.
Introduction: The introduction should provide background information on your topic, state the purpose of your research, and present your research question or hypothesis. It should also include a brief literature review that discusses previous research on your topic.
Methods: The methods section should describe the procedures you used to collect and analyze your data. It should include information on the participants, the materials and instruments used, and the statistical analyses performed.
Results: The results section should present the findings of your research in a clear and concise manner. Use tables and figures to help illustrate your results.
Discussion : The discussion section should interpret your results and relate them back to your research question or hypothesis. It should also discuss the implications of your findings and any limitations of your study.
References : The references section should include a list of all sources cited in your paper. Follow APA formatting guidelines for your citations and references.

Some additional tips for formatting your APA research paper:

Use 12-point Times New Roman font throughout the paper.
Double-space all text, including the references.
Use 1-inch margins on all sides of the page.
Indent the first line of each paragraph by 0.5 inches.
Use a hanging indent for the references (the first line should be flush with the left margin, and all subsequent lines should be indented).
Number all pages, including the title page and references page, in the upper right-hand corner.

APA Research Paper Format Template

APA Research Paper Format Template is as follows:

Title Page:

Title of the paper
Author’s name
Institutional affiliation
A brief summary of the main points of the paper, including the research question, methods, findings, and conclusions. The abstract should be no more than 250 words.

Introduction:

Background information on the topic of the research paper
Research question or hypothesis
Significance of the study
Overview of the research methods and design
Brief summary of the main findings
Participants: description of the sample population, including the number of participants and their characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, etc.)
Materials: description of any materials used in the study (e.g., survey questions, experimental apparatus)
Procedure: detailed description of the steps taken to conduct the study
Presentation of the findings of the study, including statistical analyses if applicable
Tables and figures may be included to illustrate the results

Discussion:

Interpretation of the results in light of the research question and hypothesis
Implications of the study for the field
Limitations of the study
Suggestions for future research

References:

A list of all sources cited in the paper, in APA format

Formatting guidelines:

Double-spaced
12-point font (Times New Roman or Arial)
1-inch margins on all sides
Page numbers in the top right corner
Headings and subheadings should be used to organize the paper
The first line of each paragraph should be indented
Quotations of 40 or more words should be set off in a block quote with no quotation marks
In-text citations should include the author’s last name and year of publication (e.g., Smith, 2019)

APA Research Paper Format Example

APA Research Paper Format Example is as follows:

The Effects of Social Media on Mental Health

University of XYZ

This study examines the relationship between social media use and mental health among college students. Data was collected through a survey of 500 students at the University of XYZ. Results suggest that social media use is significantly related to symptoms of depression and anxiety, and that the negative effects of social media are greater among frequent users.

Social media has become an increasingly important aspect of modern life, especially among young adults. While social media can have many positive effects, such as connecting people across distances and sharing information, there is growing concern about its impact on mental health. This study aims to examine the relationship between social media use and mental health among college students.

Participants: Participants were 500 college students at the University of XYZ, recruited through online advertisements and flyers posted on campus. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 25, with a mean age of 20.5 years. The sample was 60% female, 40% male, and 5% identified as non-binary or gender non-conforming.

Data was collected through an online survey administered through Qualtrics. The survey consisted of several measures, including the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) for depression symptoms, the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) for anxiety symptoms, and questions about social media use.

Procedure :

Participants were asked to complete the online survey at their convenience. The survey took approximately 20-30 minutes to complete. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlations, and multiple regression analysis.

Results indicated that social media use was significantly related to symptoms of depression (r = .32, p < .001) and anxiety (r = .29, p < .001). Regression analysis indicated that frequency of social media use was a significant predictor of both depression symptoms (β = .24, p < .001) and anxiety symptoms (β = .20, p < .001), even when controlling for age, gender, and other relevant factors.

The results of this study suggest that social media use is associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety among college students. The negative effects of social media are greater among frequent users. These findings have important implications for mental health professionals and educators, who should consider addressing the potential negative effects of social media use in their work with young adults.

References :

References should be listed in alphabetical order according to the author’s last name. For example:

Chou, H. T. G., & Edge, N. (2012). “They are happier and having better lives than I am”: The impact of using Facebook on perceptions of others’ lives. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(2), 117-121.
Twenge, J. M., Joiner, T. E., Rogers, M. L., & Martin, G. N. (2018). Increases in depressive symptoms, suicide-related outcomes, and suicide rates among U.S. adolescents after 2010 and links to increased new media screen time. Clinical Psychological Science, 6(1), 3-17.

Note: This is just a sample Example do not use this in your assignment.

MLA (Modern Language Association) Format

MLA (Modern Language Association) Format is as follows:

Page Layout : Use 8.5 x 11-inch white paper, with 1-inch margins on all sides. The font should be 12-point Times New Roman or a similar serif font.
Heading and Title : The first page of your research paper should include a heading and a title. The heading should include your name, your instructor’s name, the course title, and the date. The title should be centered and in title case (capitalizing the first letter of each important word).
In-Text Citations : Use parenthetical citations to indicate the source of your information. The citation should include the author’s last name and the page number(s) of the source. For example: (Smith 23).
Works Cited Page : At the end of your paper, include a Works Cited page that lists all the sources you used in your research. Each entry should include the author’s name, the title of the work, the publication information, and the medium of publication.
Formatting Quotations : Use double quotation marks for short quotations and block quotations for longer quotations. Indent the entire quotation five spaces from the left margin.
Formatting the Body : Use a clear and readable font and double-space your text throughout. The first line of each paragraph should be indented one-half inch from the left margin.

MLA Research Paper Template

MLA Research Paper Format Template is as follows:

Use 8.5 x 11 inch white paper.
Use a 12-point font, such as Times New Roman.
Use double-spacing throughout the entire paper, including the title page and works cited page.
Set the margins to 1 inch on all sides.
Use page numbers in the upper right corner, beginning with the first page of text.
Include a centered title for the research paper, using title case (capitalizing the first letter of each important word).
Include your name, instructor’s name, course name, and date in the upper left corner, double-spaced.

In-Text Citations

When quoting or paraphrasing information from sources, include an in-text citation within the text of your paper.
Use the author’s last name and the page number in parentheses at the end of the sentence, before the punctuation mark.
If the author’s name is mentioned in the sentence, only include the page number in parentheses.

Works Cited Page

List all sources cited in alphabetical order by the author’s last name.
Each entry should include the author’s name, title of the work, publication information, and medium of publication.
Use italics for book and journal titles, and quotation marks for article and chapter titles.
For online sources, include the date of access and the URL.

Here is an example of how the first page of a research paper in MLA format should look:

Headings and Subheadings

Use headings and subheadings to organize your paper and make it easier to read.
Use numerals to number your headings and subheadings (e.g. 1, 2, 3), and capitalize the first letter of each word.
The main heading should be centered and in boldface type, while subheadings should be left-aligned and in italics.
Use only one space after each period or punctuation mark.
Use quotation marks to indicate direct quotes from a source.
If the quote is more than four lines, format it as a block quote, indented one inch from the left margin and without quotation marks.
Use ellipses (…) to indicate omitted words from a quote, and brackets ([…]) to indicate added words.

Works Cited Examples

Book: Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication Year.
Journal Article: Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal, volume number, issue number, publication date, page numbers.
Website: Last Name, First Name. “Title of Webpage.” Title of Website, publication date, URL. Accessed date.

Here is an example of how a works cited entry for a book should look:

Smith, John. The Art of Writing Research Papers. Penguin, 2021.

MLA Research Paper Example

MLA Research Paper Format Example is as follows:

Your Professor’s Name

Course Name and Number

Date (in Day Month Year format)

Word Count (not including title page or Works Cited)

Title: The Impact of Video Games on Aggression Levels

Video games have become a popular form of entertainment among people of all ages. However, the impact of video games on aggression levels has been a subject of debate among scholars and researchers. While some argue that video games promote aggression and violent behavior, others argue that there is no clear link between video games and aggression levels. This research paper aims to explore the impact of video games on aggression levels among young adults.

Background:

The debate on the impact of video games on aggression levels has been ongoing for several years. According to the American Psychological Association, exposure to violent media, including video games, can increase aggression levels in children and adolescents. However, some researchers argue that there is no clear evidence to support this claim. Several studies have been conducted to examine the impact of video games on aggression levels, but the results have been mixed.

Methodology:

This research paper used a quantitative research approach to examine the impact of video games on aggression levels among young adults. A sample of 100 young adults between the ages of 18 and 25 was selected for the study. The participants were asked to complete a questionnaire that measured their aggression levels and their video game habits.

The results of the study showed that there was a significant correlation between video game habits and aggression levels among young adults. The participants who reported playing violent video games for more than 5 hours per week had higher aggression levels than those who played less than 5 hours per week. The study also found that male participants were more likely to play violent video games and had higher aggression levels than female participants.

The findings of this study support the claim that video games can increase aggression levels among young adults. However, it is important to note that the study only examined the impact of video games on aggression levels and did not take into account other factors that may contribute to aggressive behavior. It is also important to note that not all video games promote violence and aggression, and some games may have a positive impact on cognitive and social skills.

Conclusion :

In conclusion, this research paper provides evidence to support the claim that video games can increase aggression levels among young adults. However, it is important to conduct further research to examine the impact of video games on other aspects of behavior and to explore the potential benefits of video games. Parents and educators should be aware of the potential impact of video games on aggression levels and should encourage young adults to engage in a variety of activities that promote cognitive and social skills.

Works Cited:

American Psychological Association. (2017). Violent Video Games: Myths, Facts, and Unanswered Questions. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2017/08/violent-video-games
Ferguson, C. J. (2015). Do Angry Birds make for angry children? A meta-analysis of video game influences on children’s and adolescents’ aggression, mental health, prosocial behavior, and academic performance. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(5), 646-666.
Gentile, D. A., Swing, E. L., Lim, C. G., & Khoo, A. (2012). Video game playing, attention problems, and impulsiveness: Evidence of bidirectional causality. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 1(1), 62-70.
Greitemeyer, T. (2014). Effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(4), 530-548.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chicago/Turabian Formate is as follows:

Margins : Use 1-inch margins on all sides of the paper.
Font : Use a readable font such as Times New Roman or Arial, and use a 12-point font size.
Page numbering : Number all pages in the upper right-hand corner, beginning with the first page of text. Use Arabic numerals.
Title page: Include a title page with the title of the paper, your name, course title and number, instructor’s name, and the date. The title should be centered on the page and in title case (capitalize the first letter of each word).
Headings: Use headings to organize your paper. The first level of headings should be centered and in boldface or italics. The second level of headings should be left-aligned and in boldface or italics. Use as many levels of headings as necessary to organize your paper.
In-text citations : Use footnotes or endnotes to cite sources within the text of your paper. The first citation for each source should be a full citation, and subsequent citations can be shortened. Use superscript numbers to indicate footnotes or endnotes.
Bibliography : Include a bibliography at the end of your paper, listing all sources cited in your paper. The bibliography should be in alphabetical order by the author’s last name, and each entry should include the author’s name, title of the work, publication information, and date of publication.
Formatting of quotations: Use block quotations for quotations that are longer than four lines. Indent the entire quotation one inch from the left margin, and do not use quotation marks. Single-space the quotation, and double-space between paragraphs.
Tables and figures: Use tables and figures to present data and illustrations. Number each table and figure sequentially, and provide a brief title for each. Place tables and figures as close as possible to the text that refers to them.
Spelling and grammar : Use correct spelling and grammar throughout your paper. Proofread carefully for errors.

Chicago/Turabian Research Paper Template

Chicago/Turabian Research Paper Template is as folows:

Title of Paper

Name of Student

Professor’s Name

I. Introduction

A. Background Information

B. Research Question

C. Thesis Statement

II. Literature Review

A. Overview of Existing Literature

B. Analysis of Key Literature

C. Identification of Gaps in Literature

III. Methodology

A. Research Design

B. Data Collection

C. Data Analysis

IV. Results

A. Presentation of Findings

B. Analysis of Findings

C. Discussion of Implications

V. Conclusion

A. Summary of Findings

B. Implications for Future Research

C. Conclusion

VI. References

A. Bibliography

B. In-Text Citations

VII. Appendices (if necessary)

A. Data Tables

C. Additional Supporting Materials

Chicago/Turabian Research Paper Example

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Political Engagement

Name: John Smith

Class: POLS 101

Professor: Dr. Jane Doe

Date: April 8, 2023

I. Introduction:

Social media has become an integral part of our daily lives. People use social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram to connect with friends and family, share their opinions, and stay informed about current events. With the rise of social media, there has been a growing interest in understanding its impact on various aspects of society, including political engagement. In this paper, I will examine the relationship between social media use and political engagement, specifically focusing on how social media influences political participation and political attitudes.

II. Literature Review:

There is a growing body of literature on the impact of social media on political engagement. Some scholars argue that social media has a positive effect on political participation by providing new channels for political communication and mobilization (Delli Carpini & Keeter, 1996; Putnam, 2000). Others, however, suggest that social media can have a negative impact on political engagement by creating filter bubbles that reinforce existing beliefs and discourage political dialogue (Pariser, 2011; Sunstein, 2001).

III. Methodology:

To examine the relationship between social media use and political engagement, I conducted a survey of 500 college students. The survey included questions about social media use, political participation, and political attitudes. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Iv. Results:

The results of the survey indicate that social media use is positively associated with political participation. Specifically, respondents who reported using social media to discuss politics were more likely to have participated in a political campaign, attended a political rally, or contacted a political representative. Additionally, social media use was found to be associated with more positive attitudes towards political engagement, such as increased trust in government and belief in the effectiveness of political action.

V. Conclusion:

The findings of this study suggest that social media has a positive impact on political engagement, by providing new opportunities for political communication and mobilization. However, there is also a need for caution, as social media can also create filter bubbles that reinforce existing beliefs and discourage political dialogue. Future research should continue to explore the complex relationship between social media and political engagement, and develop strategies to harness the potential benefits of social media while mitigating its potential negative effects.

Vii. References:

Delli Carpini, M. X., & Keeter, S. (1996). What Americans know about politics and why it matters. Yale University Press.
Pariser, E. (2011). The filter bubble: What the Internet is hiding from you. Penguin.
Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. Simon & Schuster.
Sunstein, C. R. (2001). Republic.com. Princeton University Press.

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Format

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Research Paper Format is as follows:

Title : A concise and informative title that accurately reflects the content of the paper.
Abstract : A brief summary of the paper, typically no more than 250 words, that includes the purpose of the study, the methods used, the key findings, and the main conclusions.
Introduction : An overview of the background, context, and motivation for the research, including a clear statement of the problem being addressed and the objectives of the study.
Literature review: A critical analysis of the relevant research and scholarship on the topic, including a discussion of any gaps or limitations in the existing literature.
Methodology : A detailed description of the methods used to collect and analyze data, including any experiments or simulations, data collection instruments or procedures, and statistical analyses.
Results : A clear and concise presentation of the findings, including any relevant tables, graphs, or figures.
Discussion : A detailed interpretation of the results, including a comparison of the findings with previous research, a discussion of the implications of the results, and any recommendations for future research.
Conclusion : A summary of the key findings and main conclusions of the study.
References : A list of all sources cited in the paper, formatted according to IEEE guidelines.

In addition to these elements, an IEEE research paper should also follow certain formatting guidelines, including using 12-point font, double-spaced text, and numbered headings and subheadings. Additionally, any tables, figures, or equations should be clearly labeled and referenced in the text.

AMA (American Medical Association) Style

AMA (American Medical Association) Style Research Paper Format:

Title Page: This page includes the title of the paper, the author’s name, institutional affiliation, and any acknowledgments or disclaimers.
Abstract: The abstract is a brief summary of the paper that outlines the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions of the study. It is typically limited to 250 words or less.
Introduction: The introduction provides a background of the research problem, defines the research question, and outlines the objectives and hypotheses of the study.
Methods: The methods section describes the research design, participants, procedures, and instruments used to collect and analyze data.
Results: The results section presents the findings of the study in a clear and concise manner, using graphs, tables, and charts where appropriate.
Discussion: The discussion section interprets the results, explains their significance, and relates them to previous research in the field.
Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes the main points of the paper, discusses the implications of the findings, and suggests future research directions.
References: The reference list includes all sources cited in the paper, listed in alphabetical order by author’s last name.

In addition to these sections, the AMA format requires that authors follow specific guidelines for citing sources in the text and formatting their references. The AMA style uses a superscript number system for in-text citations and provides specific formats for different types of sources, such as books, journal articles, and websites.

Harvard Style

Harvard Style Research Paper format is as follows:

Title page: This should include the title of your paper, your name, the name of your institution, and the date of submission.
Abstract : This is a brief summary of your paper, usually no more than 250 words. It should outline the main points of your research and highlight your findings.
Introduction : This section should introduce your research topic, provide background information, and outline your research question or thesis statement.
Literature review: This section should review the relevant literature on your topic, including previous research studies, academic articles, and other sources.
Methodology : This section should describe the methods you used to conduct your research, including any data collection methods, research instruments, and sampling techniques.
Results : This section should present your findings in a clear and concise manner, using tables, graphs, and other visual aids if necessary.
Discussion : This section should interpret your findings and relate them to the broader research question or thesis statement. You should also discuss the implications of your research and suggest areas for future study.
Conclusion : This section should summarize your main findings and provide a final statement on the significance of your research.
References : This is a list of all the sources you cited in your paper, presented in alphabetical order by author name. Each citation should include the author’s name, the title of the source, the publication date, and other relevant information.

In addition to these sections, a Harvard Style research paper may also include a table of contents, appendices, and other supplementary materials as needed. It is important to follow the specific formatting guidelines provided by your instructor or academic institution when preparing your research paper in Harvard Style.

Vancouver Style

Vancouver Style Research Paper format is as follows:

The Vancouver citation style is commonly used in the biomedical sciences and is known for its use of numbered references. Here is a basic format for a research paper using the Vancouver citation style:

Title page: Include the title of your paper, your name, the name of your institution, and the date.
Abstract : This is a brief summary of your research paper, usually no more than 250 words.
Introduction : Provide some background information on your topic and state the purpose of your research.
Methods : Describe the methods you used to conduct your research, including the study design, data collection, and statistical analysis.
Results : Present your findings in a clear and concise manner, using tables and figures as needed.
Discussion : Interpret your results and explain their significance. Also, discuss any limitations of your study and suggest directions for future research.
References : List all of the sources you cited in your paper in numerical order. Each reference should include the author’s name, the title of the article or book, the name of the journal or publisher, the year of publication, and the page numbers.

ACS (American Chemical Society) Style

ACS (American Chemical Society) Style Research Paper format is as follows:

The American Chemical Society (ACS) Style is a citation style commonly used in chemistry and related fields. When formatting a research paper in ACS Style, here are some guidelines to follow:

Paper Size and Margins : Use standard 8.5″ x 11″ paper with 1-inch margins on all sides.
Font: Use a 12-point serif font (such as Times New Roman) for the main text. The title should be in bold and a larger font size.
Title Page : The title page should include the title of the paper, the authors’ names and affiliations, and the date of submission. The title should be centered on the page and written in bold font. The authors’ names should be centered below the title, followed by their affiliations and the date.
Abstract : The abstract should be a brief summary of the paper, no more than 250 words. It should be on a separate page and include the title of the paper, the authors’ names and affiliations, and the text of the abstract.
Main Text : The main text should be organized into sections with headings that clearly indicate the content of each section. The introduction should provide background information and state the research question or hypothesis. The methods section should describe the procedures used in the study. The results section should present the findings of the study, and the discussion section should interpret the results and provide conclusions.
References: Use the ACS Style guide to format the references cited in the paper. In-text citations should be numbered sequentially throughout the text and listed in numerical order at the end of the paper.
Figures and Tables: Figures and tables should be numbered sequentially and referenced in the text. Each should have a descriptive caption that explains its content. Figures should be submitted in a high-quality electronic format.
Supporting Information: Additional information such as data, graphs, and videos may be included as supporting information. This should be included in a separate file and referenced in the main text.
Acknowledgments : Acknowledge any funding sources or individuals who contributed to the research.

ASA (American Sociological Association) Style

ASA (American Sociological Association) Style Research Paper format is as follows:

Title Page: The title page of an ASA style research paper should include the title of the paper, the author’s name, and the institutional affiliation. The title should be centered and should be in title case (the first letter of each major word should be capitalized).
Abstract: An abstract is a brief summary of the paper that should appear on a separate page immediately following the title page. The abstract should be no more than 200 words in length and should summarize the main points of the paper.
Main Body: The main body of the paper should begin on a new page following the abstract page. The paper should be double-spaced, with 1-inch margins on all sides, and should be written in 12-point Times New Roman font. The main body of the paper should include an introduction, a literature review, a methodology section, results, and a discussion.
References : The reference section should appear on a separate page at the end of the paper. All sources cited in the paper should be listed in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. Each reference should include the author’s name, the title of the work, the publication information, and the date of publication.
Appendices : Appendices are optional and should only be included if they contain information that is relevant to the study but too lengthy to be included in the main body of the paper. If you include appendices, each one should be labeled with a letter (e.g., Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.) and should be referenced in the main body of the paper.

APSA (American Political Science Association) Style

APSA (American Political Science Association) Style Research Paper format is as follows:

Title Page: The title page should include the title of the paper, the author’s name, the name of the course or instructor, and the date.
Abstract : An abstract is typically not required in APSA style papers, but if one is included, it should be brief and summarize the main points of the paper.
Introduction : The introduction should provide an overview of the research topic, the research question, and the main argument or thesis of the paper.
Literature Review : The literature review should summarize the existing research on the topic and provide a context for the research question.
Methods : The methods section should describe the research methods used in the paper, including data collection and analysis.
Results : The results section should present the findings of the research.
Discussion : The discussion section should interpret the results and connect them back to the research question and argument.
Conclusion : The conclusion should summarize the main findings and implications of the research.
References : The reference list should include all sources cited in the paper, formatted according to APSA style guidelines.

In-text citations in APSA style use parenthetical citation, which includes the author’s last name, publication year, and page number(s) if applicable. For example, (Smith 2010, 25).

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Educational resources and simple solutions for your research journey

How to Write a Research Paper Outline (with Examples)

Writing a research paper is an essential part of an academic career. However, the task can be quite challenging especially for early career researchers unfamiliar with the nuances of academic research and writing. Creating an impactful research paper demands meticulous attention to detail, an in depth understanding of the topic and research methodology, and the ability to communicate the findings in an accurate and easy to understand way. This is where a research paper outline becomes useful. Writing a research paper can be made simpler and more efficient with a well-organized plan. A well-structured research paper outline offers the fundamental foundation on which researchers can construct their narratives logically, ensuring that the study report is well-presented and interesting for readers.

Table of Contents

This article takes a look now at the benefits of having a good research paper outline and also provides guidance on creating one.

4 steps to create a well-structured research paper outline  

List the key components .

To begin with, researchers must list down the key components that should be included in the research paper outline . Start with identifying your research question. Organize your key ideas and thoughts so that you are able to clearly convey the various aspects of your research question or thesis statement. Create separate points for the introduction, literature review, methodology, results, significance of your research along with its limitations. These sections will help you organize your thoughts and ensure that all relevant information is included in your research manuscript.

Structure the outline logically

As you create your outline, make sure that there is logical flow of ideas and arguments. Think through the sequence in which you will present your topic and ideas. Structure the research paper outline in a way that allows a clear and continuous narrative that is easy to understand. For example, the introduction must be concise and engaging and must clearly introduce the research topic. The main paragraphs must focus on the research problem and arguments with supporting evidence. Experts suggest using headings and sub-heads to help organize ideas and data into sub-groups. The concluding section should have a summary of your study’s main points and key takeaways with recommendations for future research. 

Provide supporting evidence

It is important to provide adequate supporting evidence and examples that underpin your key idea or argument. This helps to fit your study into the larger context of your subject area. It may be a good idea to collect all your data and relevant sources right from the start. Experts suggest providing at last three supporting evidences for each of your main ideas and including appropriate and accurate citations in the research paper outline .

Review and edit

Finally, take time to review the outline and make necessary modifications as you come across new data and information. To do so, you must have sufficient knowledge of the existing and current literature on the topic. Make sure that your ideas are in a logical order, and you have not missed out anything from your research notes.

3 tips to draft a great research paper outline 

Be concise and clear: Avoid adding unnecessary details to your research paper outline . Try instead, to focus only on the key ideas, information and supporting evidence for your study. Experts suggest avoiding the use of lengthy sentences and recommend the use of short phrases, sub-heads, and bullet points to outline ideas.
Stay consistent with formatting: To ensure consistency in formatting, researchers can choose from different kinds of research paper outline templates. The most commonly used ones are:
The alpha-numerical template where the points are written as short sentences,
The full sentence format where whole sentences are written with specific points
The decimal format where the main point is presented as a whole number (1, 2) and sub-points are given as decimal points (1.1, 1.2). 
Seek feedback from supervisors: Once you have completed the outline, it is a good idea to share it with your supervisors and mentors and seek their insights. Their inputs will help ensure that your research paper outline is on track.

Research paper outline example

Given below is a research paper outline example that you can use as a starting point.

I. Introduction

Background and context of the research topic
Problem statement and research question
Significance of the study

II. Literature Review

Overview of relevant literature
Discussion of previous research and findings
Identification of gaps and areas for further exploration

III. Methodology

Explanation of the research design
Description of data collection methods
Discussion of data analysis techniques

IV. Results

Presentation of research findings
Data visualization (tables, graphs, charts, etc.)
Explanation of key results

V. Discussion

Interpretation of the results
Comparison with existing literature
Addressing limitations and implications of the study

VI. Conclusion

Summary of the research paper
Final remarks and suggestions for future research

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17 Research Proposal Examples

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

Learn about our Editorial Process

research proposal example sections definition and purpose, explained below

A research proposal systematically and transparently outlines a proposed research project.

The purpose of a research proposal is to demonstrate a project’s viability and the researcher’s preparedness to conduct an academic study. It serves as a roadmap for the researcher.

The process holds value both externally (for accountability purposes and often as a requirement for a grant application) and intrinsic value (for helping the researcher to clarify the mechanics, purpose, and potential signficance of the study).

Key sections of a research proposal include: the title, abstract, introduction, literature review, research design and methods, timeline, budget, outcomes and implications, references, and appendix. Each is briefly explained below.

Watch my Guide: How to Write a Research Proposal

Get your Template for Writing your Research Proposal Here (With AI Prompts!)

Research Proposal Sample Structure

Title: The title should present a concise and descriptive statement that clearly conveys the core idea of the research projects. Make it as specific as possible. The reader should immediately be able to grasp the core idea of the intended research project. Often, the title is left too vague and does not help give an understanding of what exactly the study looks at.

Abstract: Abstracts are usually around 250-300 words and provide an overview of what is to follow – including the research problem , objectives, methods, expected outcomes, and significance of the study. Use it as a roadmap and ensure that, if the abstract is the only thing someone reads, they’ll get a good fly-by of what will be discussed in the peice.

Introduction: Introductions are all about contextualization. They often set the background information with a statement of the problem. At the end of the introduction, the reader should understand what the rationale for the study truly is. I like to see the research questions or hypotheses included in the introduction and I like to get a good understanding of what the significance of the research will be. It’s often easiest to write the introduction last

Literature Review: The literature review dives deep into the existing literature on the topic, demosntrating your thorough understanding of the existing literature including themes, strengths, weaknesses, and gaps in the literature. It serves both to demonstrate your knowledge of the field and, to demonstrate how the proposed study will fit alongside the literature on the topic. A good literature review concludes by clearly demonstrating how your research will contribute something new and innovative to the conversation in the literature.

Research Design and Methods: This section needs to clearly demonstrate how the data will be gathered and analyzed in a systematic and academically sound manner. Here, you need to demonstrate that the conclusions of your research will be both valid and reliable. Common points discussed in the research design and methods section include highlighting the research paradigm, methodologies, intended population or sample to be studied, data collection techniques, and data analysis procedures . Toward the end of this section, you are encouraged to also address ethical considerations and limitations of the research process , but also to explain why you chose your research design and how you are mitigating the identified risks and limitations.

Timeline: Provide an outline of the anticipated timeline for the study. Break it down into its various stages (including data collection, data analysis, and report writing). The goal of this section is firstly to establish a reasonable breakdown of steps for you to follow and secondly to demonstrate to the assessors that your project is practicable and feasible.

Budget: Estimate the costs associated with the research project and include evidence for your estimations. Typical costs include staffing costs, equipment, travel, and data collection tools. When applying for a scholarship, the budget should demonstrate that you are being responsible with your expensive and that your funding application is reasonable.

Expected Outcomes and Implications: A discussion of the anticipated findings or results of the research, as well as the potential contributions to the existing knowledge, theory, or practice in the field. This section should also address the potential impact of the research on relevant stakeholders and any broader implications for policy or practice.

References: A complete list of all the sources cited in the research proposal, formatted according to the required citation style. This demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with the relevant literature and ensures proper attribution of ideas and information.

Appendices (if applicable): Any additional materials, such as questionnaires, interview guides, or consent forms, that provide further information or support for the research proposal. These materials should be included as appendices at the end of the document.

Research Proposal Examples

Research proposals often extend anywhere between 2,000 and 15,000 words in length. The following snippets are samples designed to briefly demonstrate what might be discussed in each section.

1. Education Studies Research Proposals

See some real sample pieces:

Assessment of the perceptions of teachers towards a new grading system
Does ICT use in secondary classrooms help or hinder student learning?
Digital technologies in focus project
Urban Middle School Teachers’ Experiences of the Implementation of
Restorative Justice Practices
Experiences of students of color in service learning

Consider this hypothetical education research proposal:

The Impact of Game-Based Learning on Student Engagement and Academic Performance in Middle School Mathematics

Abstract: The proposed study will explore multiplayer game-based learning techniques in middle school mathematics curricula and their effects on student engagement. The study aims to contribute to the current literature on game-based learning by examining the effects of multiplayer gaming in learning.

Introduction: Digital game-based learning has long been shunned within mathematics education for fears that it may distract students or lower the academic integrity of the classrooms. However, there is emerging evidence that digital games in math have emerging benefits not only for engagement but also academic skill development. Contributing to this discourse, this study seeks to explore the potential benefits of multiplayer digital game-based learning by examining its impact on middle school students’ engagement and academic performance in a mathematics class.

Literature Review: The literature review has identified gaps in the current knowledge, namely, while game-based learning has been extensively explored, the role of multiplayer games in supporting learning has not been studied.

Research Design and Methods: This study will employ a mixed-methods research design based upon action research in the classroom. A quasi-experimental pre-test/post-test control group design will first be used to compare the academic performance and engagement of middle school students exposed to game-based learning techniques with those in a control group receiving instruction without the aid of technology. Students will also be observed and interviewed in regard to the effect of communication and collaboration during gameplay on their learning.

Timeline: The study will take place across the second term of the school year with a pre-test taking place on the first day of the term and the post-test taking place on Wednesday in Week 10.

Budget: The key budgetary requirements will be the technologies required, including the subscription cost for the identified games and computers.

Expected Outcomes and Implications: It is expected that the findings will contribute to the current literature on game-based learning and inform educational practices, providing educators and policymakers with insights into how to better support student achievement in mathematics.

2. Psychology Research Proposals

See some real examples:

A situational analysis of shared leadership in a self-managing team
The effect of musical preference on running performance
Relationship between self-esteem and disordered eating amongst adolescent females

Consider this hypothetical psychology research proposal:

The Effects of Mindfulness-Based Interventions on Stress Reduction in College Students

Abstract: This research proposal examines the impact of mindfulness-based interventions on stress reduction among college students, using a pre-test/post-test experimental design with both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods .

Introduction: College students face heightened stress levels during exam weeks. This can affect both mental health and test performance. This study explores the potential benefits of mindfulness-based interventions such as meditation as a way to mediate stress levels in the weeks leading up to exam time.

Literature Review: Existing research on mindfulness-based meditation has shown the ability for mindfulness to increase metacognition, decrease anxiety levels, and decrease stress. Existing literature has looked at workplace, high school and general college-level applications. This study will contribute to the corpus of literature by exploring the effects of mindfulness directly in the context of exam weeks.

Research Design and Methods: Participants ( n= 234 ) will be randomly assigned to either an experimental group, receiving 5 days per week of 10-minute mindfulness-based interventions, or a control group, receiving no intervention. Data will be collected through self-report questionnaires, measuring stress levels, semi-structured interviews exploring participants’ experiences, and students’ test scores.

Timeline: The study will begin three weeks before the students’ exam week and conclude after each student’s final exam. Data collection will occur at the beginning (pre-test of self-reported stress levels) and end (post-test) of the three weeks.

Expected Outcomes and Implications: The study aims to provide evidence supporting the effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions in reducing stress among college students in the lead up to exams, with potential implications for mental health support and stress management programs on college campuses.

3. Sociology Research Proposals

Understanding emerging social movements: A case study of ‘Jersey in Transition’
The interaction of health, education and employment in Western China
Can we preserve lower-income affordable neighbourhoods in the face of rising costs?

Consider this hypothetical sociology research proposal:

The Impact of Social Media Usage on Interpersonal Relationships among Young Adults

Abstract: This research proposal investigates the effects of social media usage on interpersonal relationships among young adults, using a longitudinal mixed-methods approach with ongoing semi-structured interviews to collect qualitative data.

Introduction: Social media platforms have become a key medium for the development of interpersonal relationships, particularly for young adults. This study examines the potential positive and negative effects of social media usage on young adults’ relationships and development over time.

Literature Review: A preliminary review of relevant literature has demonstrated that social media usage is central to development of a personal identity and relationships with others with similar subcultural interests. However, it has also been accompanied by data on mental health deline and deteriorating off-screen relationships. The literature is to-date lacking important longitudinal data on these topics.

Research Design and Methods: Participants ( n = 454 ) will be young adults aged 18-24. Ongoing self-report surveys will assess participants’ social media usage, relationship satisfaction, and communication patterns. A subset of participants will be selected for longitudinal in-depth interviews starting at age 18 and continuing for 5 years.

Timeline: The study will be conducted over a period of five years, including recruitment, data collection, analysis, and report writing.

Expected Outcomes and Implications: This study aims to provide insights into the complex relationship between social media usage and interpersonal relationships among young adults, potentially informing social policies and mental health support related to social media use.

4. Nursing Research Proposals

Does Orthopaedic Pre-assessment clinic prepare the patient for admission to hospital?
Nurses’ perceptions and experiences of providing psychological care to burns patients
Registered psychiatric nurse’s practice with mentally ill parents and their children

Consider this hypothetical nursing research proposal:

The Influence of Nurse-Patient Communication on Patient Satisfaction and Health Outcomes following Emergency Cesarians

Abstract: This research will examines the impact of effective nurse-patient communication on patient satisfaction and health outcomes for women following c-sections, utilizing a mixed-methods approach with patient surveys and semi-structured interviews.

Introduction: It has long been known that effective communication between nurses and patients is crucial for quality care. However, additional complications arise following emergency c-sections due to the interaction between new mother’s changing roles and recovery from surgery.

Literature Review: A review of the literature demonstrates the importance of nurse-patient communication, its impact on patient satisfaction, and potential links to health outcomes. However, communication between nurses and new mothers is less examined, and the specific experiences of those who have given birth via emergency c-section are to date unexamined.

Research Design and Methods: Participants will be patients in a hospital setting who have recently had an emergency c-section. A self-report survey will assess their satisfaction with nurse-patient communication and perceived health outcomes. A subset of participants will be selected for in-depth interviews to explore their experiences and perceptions of the communication with their nurses.

Timeline: The study will be conducted over a period of six months, including rolling recruitment, data collection, analysis, and report writing within the hospital.

Expected Outcomes and Implications: This study aims to provide evidence for the significance of nurse-patient communication in supporting new mothers who have had an emergency c-section. Recommendations will be presented for supporting nurses and midwives in improving outcomes for new mothers who had complications during birth.

5. Social Work Research Proposals

Experiences of negotiating employment and caring responsibilities of fathers post-divorce
Exploring kinship care in the north region of British Columbia

Consider this hypothetical social work research proposal:

The Role of a Family-Centered Intervention in Preventing Homelessness Among At-Risk Youthin a working-class town in Northern England

Abstract: This research proposal investigates the effectiveness of a family-centered intervention provided by a local council area in preventing homelessness among at-risk youth. This case study will use a mixed-methods approach with program evaluation data and semi-structured interviews to collect quantitative and qualitative data .

Introduction: Homelessness among youth remains a significant social issue. This study aims to assess the effectiveness of family-centered interventions in addressing this problem and identify factors that contribute to successful prevention strategies.

Literature Review: A review of the literature has demonstrated several key factors contributing to youth homelessness including lack of parental support, lack of social support, and low levels of family involvement. It also demonstrates the important role of family-centered interventions in addressing this issue. Drawing on current evidence, this study explores the effectiveness of one such intervention in preventing homelessness among at-risk youth in a working-class town in Northern England.

Research Design and Methods: The study will evaluate a new family-centered intervention program targeting at-risk youth and their families. Quantitative data on program outcomes, including housing stability and family functioning, will be collected through program records and evaluation reports. Semi-structured interviews with program staff, participants, and relevant stakeholders will provide qualitative insights into the factors contributing to program success or failure.

Timeline: The study will be conducted over a period of six months, including recruitment, data collection, analysis, and report writing.

Budget: Expenses include access to program evaluation data, interview materials, data analysis software, and any related travel costs for in-person interviews.

Expected Outcomes and Implications: This study aims to provide evidence for the effectiveness of family-centered interventions in preventing youth homelessness, potentially informing the expansion of or necessary changes to social work practices in Northern England.

Research Proposal Template

Get your Detailed Template for Writing your Research Proposal Here (With AI Prompts!)

This is a template for a 2500-word research proposal. You may find it difficult to squeeze everything into this wordcount, but it’s a common wordcount for Honors and MA-level dissertations.

Section	Checklist
Title	– Ensure the single-sentence title clearly states the study’s focus
Abstract (Words: 200)	– Briefly describe the research topicSummarize the research problem or question – Outline the research design and methods – Mention the expected outcomes and implications
Introduction (Words: 300)	– Introduce the research topic and its significance – Clearly state the research problem or question – Explain the purpose and objectives of the study – Provide a brief overview of
Literature Review (Words: 800)	– Gather the existing literature into themes and ket ideas – the themes and key ideas in the literature – Identify gaps or inconsistencies in the literature – Explain how the current study will contribute to the literature
Research Design and Methods (Words; 800)	– Describe the research paradigm (generally: positivism and interpretivism) – Describe the research design (e.g., qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods) – Explain the data collection methods (e.g., surveys, interviews, observations) – Detail the sampling strategy and target population – Outline the data analysis techniques (e.g., statistical analysis, thematic analysis) – Outline your validity and reliability procedures – Outline your intended ethics procedures – Explain the study design’s limitations and justify your decisions
Timeline (Single page table)	– Provide an overview of the research timeline – Break down the study into stages with specific timeframes (e.g., data collection, analysis, report writing) – Include any relevant deadlines or milestones
Budget (200 words)	– Estimate the costs associated with the research project – Detail specific expenses (e.g., materials, participant incentives, travel costs) – Include any necessary justifications for the budget items – Mention any funding sources or grant applications
Expected Outcomes and Implications (200 words)	– Summarize the anticipated findings or results of the study – Discuss the potential implications of the findings for theory, practice, or policy – Describe any possible limitations of the study

Your research proposal is where you really get going with your study. I’d strongly recommend working closely with your teacher in developing a research proposal that’s consistent with the requirements and culture of your institution, as in my experience it varies considerably. The above template is from my own courses that walk students through research proposals in a British School of Education.

Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 10 Reasons you’re Perpetually Single
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Very excellent research proposals

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Research Paper Example

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A Study on the Factors Affecting the Infant Feeding Practices

Of Mothers in Las Piñas City

By [Author], University of the Philippines

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Abstract [Abstract here]

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Introduction The melamine controversy that erupted during the last quarter of year 2008 brought people’s attention back to the debates between breastfeeding and the use of breast milk substitutes like commercial infant formula. This wasn’t the first time that infant formula had caused illnesses and even deaths to infants worldwide - hence the continuous campaign of World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF along with other breastfeeding advocates, for mothers to breastfeed their children at least until 6 months of age. Infant feeding practices refer generally to meet the nutritional and immunological needs of the baby. A study of infant feeding practices was carried out on a sample of 100 mother and infant pairs. The results revealed that only 20% of mothers in the study currently exclusively breastfeed their babies. It also shows that socio-economic factors like mother’s work status, marital status and educational attainment had direct bearing on these practices. Employed mothers tend to cease from breastfeeding their babies and eventually stop and just resort to formula feeding as they go back to work. The study also showed that mothers who are married and living with their partners are more likely to breastfeed their infants than single mothers. Those with higher educational attainment resort more to formula feeding and mixed feeding than those with lower educational attainment. Health care professionals influence mothers the most when it comes to infant feeding decisions. Methodology Type of Research The type of research that will be used in this study is qualitative research and quantitative research. Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. The discipline investigates the “why” and “how” of decision making. Besides this, the researcher will also examine the phenomenon through observations in numerical representations and through statistical analysis. Along with questionnaires that will be given out to respondents for the statistical representation of the findings in the study, interviews with the respondents and a few experts in this field will also be conducted. Sampling Method The research sampling method that will be used in this study is random sampling to obtain a more scientific result that could be used to represent the entirety of the population. A list of all health care facilities (maternity and lying-in clinics, public and private hospitals, health centers) was acquired from the Las Piñas City Hall. From 20 barangays, 3 will be picked through random sampling. The health care facilities and institutions in these three barangays will then be the target sources of respondents of the researcher. The health care facilities and institutions will be contacted to obtain a verbal consent to administer the questionnaire to mothers at their places. A letter of consent will also be sent to them along with a sample copy of the questionnaire that will be used, as well as the protocol of the researcher. A letter was also addressed to the City Health Officer to obtain endorsement and consent to conduct a research in selected barangays and distribute questionnaires to the mothers in the vicinity. Data collection was conducted throughout the facilities‟ and health centers‟ operating hours from Mondays through Sundays in order to include both working and non-working mothers. Respondents The respondents in this research will all be coming from one single location - Las Piñas City, specifically the randomly selected barangays of Pamplona I, CAA/BF International and Pamplona III. The researcher chose Las Piñas City because of the socio-economic conditions present in the area that is relevant to the study and also as it fits the time frame and resources of the researcher. The randomly sampled respondents will be asked by the researcher for consent and approval to answer the questionnaire until the desired number of respondents which is 100 is reached. The opinion of experts will also be sought in this research to provide explanations regarding the respondents‟ infant feeding behaviors and practices. Questionnaire The questionnaire requires information about the socio-economic and demographic background of the mother. It also has questions related to previous infant feeding practices and the birth of her youngest infant and also regarding the baby’s general health and age. Statements that are perceived to be factors that influence mothers‟ infant feeding decisions were presented. The description of the type of infant formula given by formula and mixed feeding mothers will also be asked in the material. Conclusion Majority of the mothers formula feed their child and only a minority exclusively breastfeeds their children, especially as per recommendation of the World Health Organization. While majority of the mothers in this study showed a positive attitude towards breastfeeding, most of them decided only to formula feed due to the reasons of insufficient milk supply and work. Based on the results of the study, the educational attainment, work status, marital status, and seminars in the barangay the respondents are part of, about breastfeeding, are the significant factors that affect the infant feeding decision of mothers in Las Piñas City. Majority of the mothers that served as respondents in this study fall under the age range of 17-30 years old. More than half of them were also college graduates while a significant number are undergraduates and have only reached until high school. Most of the mothers are housewives and the others remaining have full-time jobs, part-time jobs and self-employed. A few of them are still students. While majority of them were married, a lot were still in a status of live-in and are single. More than half of the mothers did not have previous children before the current one. Majority of the respondents also have an annual gross household income that does not exceed P50,000. Among the several information sources namely, media through televisions/radios and printed/published materials, the social support system comprised of the mother’s family, friends and other relatives and health institutions, the mothers who give their babies infant formula are influenced the most by health care institutions through health professionals and other health care personnel. They influence the mothers in deciding to feed the baby with formula and in choosing, as well, which brand of formula is best for their babies. Mothers trust their baby’s doctor because of their expertise in the said field hence this kind of relation is achieved. Mothers were overall not concerned about the possible side effects of breastfeeding as a few were only worried as shown in the data presented. It can be concluded that numerous internal as well as external factors influence a mother in making infant feeding decisions, and a greater fraction of these is socio-economic in nature.

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Key things to know about U.S. election polling in 2024

Conceptual image of an oversized voting ballot box in a large crowd of people with shallow depth of field

Confidence in U.S. public opinion polling was shaken by errors in 2016 and 2020. In both years’ general elections, many polls underestimated the strength of Republican candidates, including Donald Trump. These errors laid bare some real limitations of polling.

In the midterms that followed those elections, polling performed better . But many Americans remain skeptical that it can paint an accurate portrait of the public’s political preferences.

Restoring people’s confidence in polling is an important goal, because robust and independent public polling has a critical role to play in a democratic society. It gathers and publishes information about the well-being of the public and about citizens’ views on major issues. And it provides an important counterweight to people in power, or those seeking power, when they make claims about “what the people want.”

The challenges facing polling are undeniable. In addition to the longstanding issues of rising nonresponse and cost, summer 2024 brought extraordinary events that transformed the presidential race . The good news is that people with deep knowledge of polling are working hard to fix the problems exposed in 2016 and 2020, experimenting with more data sources and interview approaches than ever before. Still, polls are more useful to the public if people have realistic expectations about what surveys can do well – and what they cannot.

With that in mind, here are some key points to know about polling heading into this year’s presidential election.

Probability sampling (or “random sampling”). This refers to a polling method in which survey participants are recruited using random sampling from a database or list that includes nearly everyone in the population. The pollster selects the sample. The survey is not open for anyone who wants to sign up.

Online opt-in polling (or “nonprobability sampling”). These polls are recruited using a variety of methods that are sometimes referred to as “convenience sampling.” Respondents come from a variety of online sources such as ads on social media or search engines, websites offering rewards in exchange for survey participation, or self-enrollment. Unlike surveys with probability samples, people can volunteer to participate in opt-in surveys.

Nonresponse and nonresponse bias. Nonresponse is when someone sampled for a survey does not participate. Nonresponse bias occurs when the pattern of nonresponse leads to error in a poll estimate. For example, college graduates are more likely than those without a degree to participate in surveys, leading to the potential that the share of college graduates in the resulting sample will be too high.

Mode of interview. This refers to the format in which respondents are presented with and respond to survey questions. The most common modes are online, live telephone, text message and paper. Some polls use more than one mode.

Weighting. This is a statistical procedure pollsters perform to make their survey align with the broader population on key characteristics like age, race, etc. For example, if a survey has too many college graduates compared with their share in the population, people without a college degree are “weighted up” to match the proper share.

How are election polls being conducted?

Pollsters are making changes in response to the problems in previous elections. As a result, polling is different today than in 2016. Most U.S. polling organizations that conducted and publicly released national surveys in both 2016 and 2022 (61%) used methods in 2022 that differed from what they used in 2016 . And change has continued since 2022.

A sand chart showing that, as the number of public pollsters in the U.S. has grown, survey methods have become more diverse.

One change is that the number of active polling organizations has grown significantly, indicating that there are fewer barriers to entry into the polling field. The number of organizations that conduct national election polls more than doubled between 2000 and 2022.

This growth has been driven largely by pollsters using inexpensive opt-in sampling methods. But previous Pew Research Center analyses have demonstrated how surveys that use nonprobability sampling may have errors twice as large , on average, as those that use probability sampling.

The second change is that many of the more prominent polling organizations that use probability sampling – including Pew Research Center – have shifted from conducting polls primarily by telephone to using online methods, or some combination of online, mail and telephone. The result is that polling methodologies are far more diverse now than in the past.

(For more about how public opinion polling works, including a chapter on election polls, read our short online course on public opinion polling basics .)

All good polling relies on statistical adjustment called “weighting,” which makes sure that the survey sample aligns with the broader population on key characteristics. Historically, public opinion researchers have adjusted their data using a core set of demographic variables to correct imbalances between the survey sample and the population.

But there is a growing realization among survey researchers that weighting a poll on just a few variables like age, race and gender is insufficient for getting accurate results. Some groups of people – such as older adults and college graduates – are more likely to take surveys, which can lead to errors that are too sizable for a simple three- or four-variable adjustment to work well. Adjusting on more variables produces more accurate results, according to Center studies in 2016 and 2018 .

A number of pollsters have taken this lesson to heart. For example, recent high-quality polls by Gallup and The New York Times/Siena College adjusted on eight and 12 variables, respectively. Our own polls typically adjust on 12 variables . In a perfect world, it wouldn’t be necessary to have that much intervention by the pollster. But the real world of survey research is not perfect.

Predicting who will vote is critical – and difficult. Preelection polls face one crucial challenge that routine opinion polls do not: determining who of the people surveyed will actually cast a ballot.

Roughly a third of eligible Americans do not vote in presidential elections , despite the enormous attention paid to these contests. Determining who will abstain is difficult because people can’t perfectly predict their future behavior – and because many people feel social pressure to say they’ll vote even if it’s unlikely.

No one knows the profile of voters ahead of Election Day. We can’t know for sure whether young people will turn out in greater numbers than usual, or whether key racial or ethnic groups will do so. This means pollsters are left to make educated guesses about turnout, often using a mix of historical data and current measures of voting enthusiasm. This is very different from routine opinion polls, which mostly do not ask about people’s future intentions.

When major news breaks, a poll’s timing can matter. Public opinion on most issues is remarkably stable, so you don’t necessarily need a recent poll about an issue to get a sense of what people think about it. But dramatic events can and do change public opinion , especially when people are first learning about a new topic. For example, polls this summer saw notable changes in voter attitudes following Joe Biden’s withdrawal from the presidential race. Polls taken immediately after a major event may pick up a shift in public opinion, but those shifts are sometimes short-lived. Polls fielded weeks or months later are what allow us to see whether an event has had a long-term impact on the public’s psyche.

How accurate are polls?

The answer to this question depends on what you want polls to do. Polls are used for all kinds of purposes in addition to showing who’s ahead and who’s behind in a campaign. Fair or not, however, the accuracy of election polling is usually judged by how closely the polls matched the outcome of the election.

A diverging bar chart showing polling errors in U.S. presidential elections.

By this standard, polling in 2016 and 2020 performed poorly. In both years, state polling was characterized by serious errors. National polling did reasonably well in 2016 but faltered in 2020.

In 2020, a post-election review of polling by the American Association for Public Opinion Research (AAPOR) found that “the 2020 polls featured polling error of an unusual magnitude: It was the highest in 40 years for the national popular vote and the highest in at least 20 years for state-level estimates of the vote in presidential, senatorial, and gubernatorial contests.”

How big were the errors? Polls conducted in the last two weeks before the election suggested that Biden’s margin over Trump was nearly twice as large as it ended up being in the final national vote tally.

Errors of this size make it difficult to be confident about who is leading if the election is closely contested, as many U.S. elections are .

Pollsters are rightly working to improve the accuracy of their polls. But even an error of 4 or 5 percentage points isn’t too concerning if the purpose of the poll is to describe whether the public has favorable or unfavorable opinions about candidates , or to show which issues matter to which voters. And on questions that gauge where people stand on issues, we usually want to know broadly where the public stands. We don’t necessarily need to know the precise share of Americans who say, for example, that climate change is mostly caused by human activity. Even judged by its performance in recent elections, polling can still provide a faithful picture of public sentiment on the important issues of the day.

The 2022 midterms saw generally accurate polling, despite a wave of partisan polls predicting a broad Republican victory. In fact, FiveThirtyEight found that “polls were more accurate in 2022 than in any cycle since at least 1998, with almost no bias toward either party.” Moreover, a handful of contrarian polls that predicted a 2022 “red wave” largely washed out when the votes were tallied. In sum, if we focus on polling in the most recent national election, there’s plenty of reason to be encouraged.

Compared with other elections in the past 20 years, polls have been less accurate when Donald Trump is on the ballot. Preelection surveys suffered from large errors – especially at the state level – in 2016 and 2020, when Trump was standing for election. But they performed reasonably well in the 2018 and 2022 midterms, when he was not.

During the 2016 campaign, observers speculated about the possibility that Trump supporters might be less willing to express their support to a pollster – a phenomenon sometimes described as the “shy Trump effect.” But a committee of polling experts evaluated five different tests of the “shy Trump” theory and turned up little to no evidence for each one . Later, Pew Research Center and, in a separate test, a researcher from Yale also found little to no evidence in support of the claim.

Instead, two other explanations are more likely. One is about the difficulty of estimating who will turn out to vote. Research has found that Trump is popular among people who tend to sit out midterms but turn out for him in presidential election years. Since pollsters often use past turnout to predict who will vote, it can be difficult to anticipate when irregular voters will actually show up.

The other explanation is that Republicans in the Trump era have become a little less likely than Democrats to participate in polls . Pollsters call this “partisan nonresponse bias.” Surprisingly, polls historically have not shown any particular pattern of favoring one side or the other. The errors that favored Democratic candidates in the past eight years may be a result of the growth of political polarization, along with declining trust among conservatives in news organizations and other institutions that conduct polls.

Whatever the cause, the fact that Trump is again the nominee of the Republican Party means that pollsters must be especially careful to make sure all segments of the population are properly represented in surveys.

The real margin of error is often about double the one reported. A typical election poll sample of about 1,000 people has a margin of sampling error that’s about plus or minus 3 percentage points. That number expresses the uncertainty that results from taking a sample of the population rather than interviewing everyone . Random samples are likely to differ a little from the population just by chance, in the same way that the quality of your hand in a card game varies from one deal to the next.

A table showing that sampling error is not the only kind of polling error.

The problem is that sampling error is not the only kind of error that affects a poll. Those other kinds of error, in fact, can be as large or larger than sampling error. Consequently, the reported margin of error can lead people to think that polls are more accurate than they really are.

There are three other, equally important sources of error in polling: noncoverage error , where not all the target population has a chance of being sampled; nonresponse error, where certain groups of people may be less likely to participate; and measurement error, where people may not properly understand the questions or misreport their opinions. Not only does the margin of error fail to account for those other sources of potential error, putting a number only on sampling error implies to the public that other kinds of error do not exist.

Several recent studies show that the average total error in a poll estimate may be closer to twice as large as that implied by a typical margin of sampling error. This hidden error underscores the fact that polls may not be precise enough to call the winner in a close election.

Other important things to remember

Transparency in how a poll was conducted is associated with better accuracy . The polling industry has several platforms and initiatives aimed at promoting transparency in survey methodology. These include AAPOR’s transparency initiative and the Roper Center archive . Polling organizations that participate in these organizations have less error, on average, than those that don’t participate, an analysis by FiveThirtyEight found .

Participation in these transparency efforts does not guarantee that a poll is rigorous, but it is undoubtedly a positive signal. Transparency in polling means disclosing essential information, including the poll’s sponsor, the data collection firm, where and how participants were selected, modes of interview, field dates, sample size, question wording, and weighting procedures.

There is evidence that when the public is told that a candidate is extremely likely to win, some people may be less likely to vote . Following the 2016 election, many people wondered whether the pervasive forecasts that seemed to all but guarantee a Hillary Clinton victory – two modelers put her chances at 99% – led some would-be voters to conclude that the race was effectively over and that their vote would not make a difference. There is scientific research to back up that claim: A team of researchers found experimental evidence that when people have high confidence that one candidate will win, they are less likely to vote. This helps explain why some polling analysts say elections should be covered using traditional polling estimates and margins of error rather than speculative win probabilities (also known as “probabilistic forecasts”).

National polls tell us what the entire public thinks about the presidential candidates, but the outcome of the election is determined state by state in the Electoral College . The 2000 and 2016 presidential elections demonstrated a difficult truth: The candidate with the largest share of support among all voters in the United States sometimes loses the election. In those two elections, the national popular vote winners (Al Gore and Hillary Clinton) lost the election in the Electoral College (to George W. Bush and Donald Trump). In recent years, analysts have shown that Republican candidates do somewhat better in the Electoral College than in the popular vote because every state gets three electoral votes regardless of population – and many less-populated states are rural and more Republican.

For some, this raises the question: What is the use of national polls if they don’t tell us who is likely to win the presidency? In fact, national polls try to gauge the opinions of all Americans, regardless of whether they live in a battleground state like Pennsylvania, a reliably red state like Idaho or a reliably blue state like Rhode Island. In short, national polls tell us what the entire citizenry is thinking. Polls that focus only on the competitive states run the risk of giving too little attention to the needs and views of the vast majority of Americans who live in uncompetitive states – about 80%.

Fortunately, this is not how most pollsters view the world . As the noted political scientist Sidney Verba explained, “Surveys produce just what democracy is supposed to produce – equal representation of all citizens.”

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Scott Keeter is a senior survey advisor at Pew Research Center .

Courtney Kennedy is Vice President of Methods and Innovation at Pew Research Center .

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How public polling has changed in the 21st century, what 2020’s election poll errors tell us about the accuracy of issue polling, a field guide to polling: election 2020 edition, methods 101: how is polling done around the world, most popular.

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Open access
Published: 24 August 2024

Sociodemographic and work-related factors associated with psychological resilience in South African healthcare workers: a cross-sectional study

Thandokazi Mcizana ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0002-4078-1991 1 ,
Shahieda Adams ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3630-1855 2 ,
Saajida Khan ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0001-8454-2215 2 , 3 , 4 &
Itumeleng Ntatamala ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9799-0132 2

BMC Health Services Research volume 24 , Article number: 979 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

120 Accesses

Metrics details

Psychological resilience facilitates adaptation in stressful environments and is an important personal characteristic that enables workers to navigate occupational challenges. Few studies have evaluated the factors associated with psychological resilience in healthcare workers.

To determine the prevalence and factors associated with psychological resilience in a group of South African medical doctors and ambulance personnel.

Materials and methods

This analytical cross-sectional study used secondary data obtained from two studies conducted among healthcare workers in 2019 and 2022. Self-reported factors associated with resilience, as measured by the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-10 (CD-RISC-10), were evaluated. R statistical software was used for analysing the data and performing statistical tests.

A total of 647 healthcare workers were included in the study, of which 259 were doctors and 388 were ambulance personnel. Resilience scores were low overall (27.6 ± 6.6) but higher for ambulance personnel (28.0 ± 6.9) than for doctors (27.1 ± 6.0) ( p = 0.006). Female gender (OR 1.94, 95%CI 1.03–3.72, p = 0.043), job category (OR 6.94 95%CI 1.22–60.50, p = 0.044) and overtime work (OR 13.88, 95%CI 1.61–368.00, p = 0.044) significantly increased the odds of low resilience for doctors. Conversely, salary (OR 0.13, 95%CI 0.02–0.64, p = 0.024) and current smoking status (OR 0.16, 95%CI 0.02–0.66, p = 0.027) significantly reduced the odds of low resilience amongst doctors. In addition, only previous alcohol use significantly reduced the odds of low resilience for ambulance personnel (OR 0.44, 95%CI 0.20–0.94, p = 0.038) and overall sample (OR 0.52, 95%CI 0.29–0.91, p = 0.024).

Conclusions

Resilience was relatively low in this group of South African healthcare workers. The strong association between low resilience and individual and workplace factors provides avenues for early intervention and building resilience among healthcare workers.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

The healthcare systems of most low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) are under severe strain due to high patient load, significant burden of communicable and noncommunicable diseases, lack of human and financial resources, the brain drain phenomenon, corruption and poor administration [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. South Africa, an upper middle-income country, faces similar challenges, with a quadruple burden of disease including HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis, high maternal and child mortality, high levels of violence and injuries and noncommunicable diseases [ 5 ]. Poor health outcomes and a disproportionate distribution of healthcare resources in the country may be ascribed to the legacy of an undemocratic political apartheid regime (1948–1993) compounded by ongoing challenges in managing the health system in a post-apartheid South Africa [ 4 , 5 ]. In 2021, for example, South Africa had a doctor-patient ratio of 80 physician per 100,000 people in South Africa, which is lower than the average in upper middle-income countries of 210 physicians per 100,000 people [ 6 ]. South Africa’s government is currently in the process of implementing a National Health Insurance (NHI) scheme to address the tremendous challenges that plague the health system [ 2 ]. However, the country’s preparedness remains uncertain, especially given the ongoing shortage of healthcare worker posts and rising unemployment in the health sector [ 5 , 7 ]. These challenges place immense pressure on employed healthcare workers, making psychological resilience an important inherent ability that can aid in supporting and protecting healthcare workers against adverse mental health outcomes and contributing to improved service delivery.

Psychological resilience is an important personal characteristic that enables healthcare workers to navigate the challenges encountered in their occupation [ 8 ]. Herrman and colleagues explored the evolution of the term in their narrative review and concluded that fundamentally, resilience is the ‘inherent ability’ for one to adapt positively following adversity or stressful events [ 9 ]. As such, psychological resilience describes an individual’s coping mechanism, optimism, self-efficacy, high levels of hope and thriving mental health amid adversity and challenging circumstances [ 10 ]. Research on the role of psychological resilience as a protective factor in frontline healthcare workers has increased recently during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic [ 11 ]. Much of the research in this area has been conducted in high-income countries (HICs) and China, and little is known about the factors that predict psychological resilience in workers in LMICs, including South Africa [ 11 ]. A systematic review on resilience among primary healthcare workers, found that most research on the topic primarily frames resilience as an explanatory variable in relation to burnout [ 12 ]. This study therefore aimed to determine the prevalence, and factors associated with psychological resilience of healthcare workers practising in the South African healthcare system.

Study design and setting

This is an analytical cross-sectional study using secondary data obtained from two cross-sectional studies of healthcare workers in South Africa. The first study on post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) included ambulance personnel employed by the Western Cape Department of Health, and data was collected between 15 November 2019 and 17 January 2020 [ 13 ]. This study included 388 responses out of approximately 2000 ambulance personnel. The second study on burnout included medical doctors employed in three public sector hospitals in the Eastern Cape province, and data was collected between 1 April and 31 May 2022 [ 14 ]. This study included 260 responses out of 430 doctors. The present study included data of all healthcare workers who had completed the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-10 (CD-RISC-10) questionnaire and relevant sociodemographic and occupational questions.

Measurements

This study used secondary data generated from self-administered questionnaires that consisted of sociodemographic factors, work-related factors, and the CD-RISC-10 questionnaire.

Sociodemographic and work-related factors

The data obtained from the questionnaires included self-reported information on age, gender, language, marital status, job category, professional qualifications, overtime work, salary, and length of service. In addition, data on mental health and medical history, including self-reported mental health conditions and substance use (smoking, alcohol use, illicit and prescription drugs), year of debut, and the use of substances to manage work-related stress, were obtained.

Psychological resilience (outcome variable) was measured using the 10-item CD-RISC questionnaire. The CD-RISC-10 is a self-administered 10-item questionnaire, which is a shorter version of the CD-RISC-25. Participants identified their adaptive behaviours in stressful situations and scored them on a 5-point Likert scale (0 = not at all true, 4 = true nearly all the time) [ 15 ]. The resulting scores ranged between 0 and 40. This scale has previously been reported to be a reliable and efficient measure of psychological resilience for adults [ 16 ]. In addition, it has previously been validated for use in South Africa by Pretorius and Padmanabhanunni as a measure of psychological resilience and has been used in several studies of South African healthcare workers [ 3 , 13 , 14 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Written permission to use the scale was previously obtained [ 13 , 14 ].

Data analysis

After ethical approval, the secondary data were received and cleaned in password-protected Microsoft Excel. R statistical software (version 4.3.1) was used for analysing the data and performing the statistical tests. Descriptive statistics for continuous variables in this study are presented as the means (standard deviations) and medians (interquartile ranges) where appropriate. In addition, descriptive statistics for categorical variables are presented as proportions.

Mann‒Whitney and Kruskal‒Wallis tests were used to determine significant differences in CD-RISC-10 scores. In addition, unadjusted logistic regression and adjusted logistic regression (adjusted for age and gender) were performed. Low resilience, as an outcome measure, was defined as a CD-RISC-10 score less than 25.5 [ 20 ]. Variables from the adjusted logistic regression analysis with a p value less than 0.250 were selected for the multivariable logistic regression model to investigate factors associated with increased resilience score. The odds ratios (OR), 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) and p values (p) were calculated for both the univariable and multivariable analyses. A p value of less than 0.050 was considered the cut-off point for statistical significance.

Missing data

Only the age factor had missing data of more than 1% of the total recorded values and thus necessitated imputation (see Supplementary Table S1 and Supplementary Fig. S1 online). Age is also important when performing this regression analysis, as age has previously been reported to be an important confounder of psychological resilience and needs to be adjusted for when performing regression analysis [ 11 , 21 , 22 , 23 ]. Multiple imputation was chosen because it results in valid statistical inferences [ 24 ]. To assess the sensitivity of the results with respect to the multiple imputation method chosen, multiple imputation using the three methods available in the Multivariate Imputation by Chained Equation (MICE) package in R were performed (see Supplementary Table S2 online). The imputed data from the Classification and regression tree (CART) method was chosen for use in the following regression analysis, given its minimal impact on the distribution of the age factor. Supplementary Fig. S2 shows the distribution of the age factor before and after CART imputation.

From the original datasets received (648 records), only one record was removed because the participant indicated that they were gender nonconforming, resulting in several skewed results. In total therefore, 647 observations were included in the present analysis, of which 259 were from doctors and 388 were from ambulance personnel.

Sociodemographic and work-related characteristics

Among the 259 doctors, the majority, 150 (57.9%) were female, while most ambulance personnel, 213 (54.9%) were male (Table 1 ). Most of the doctors, 171 (66.0%) were English speaking and 110 (42.5%) were in the 20–29 years age group, while most of the ambulance personnel, 178 (45.9%) were Afrikaans speaking and, 144 (37.1%) were in the 30–39 years age group. Doctors’ years of service in the current role were lower, with a median of 2 (IQR: 4), while ambulance personnel had a median of 7 (IQR: 9). A greater percentage of doctors, 251 (96.9%) reported working overtime than, 266 (68.6%) ambulance personnel.

Substance use, mental health, and work-related stress management

The prevalence of smoking was greater among ambulance personnel, 118 (30.4%) than among, 23 (8.9%) of doctors, while current alcohol usage was 166 (64.1%) for doctors, greater than 200 (51.5%) for ambulance personnel (Table 2 ). Only 18 (2.8%) of the overall sample reported current use of illicit substances or drugs. A quarter of the doctors, 65 (25.1%), reported having been diagnosed with a mental health condition compared to 43 (11.1%) of the ambulance personnel. In addition, 45 (17.4%) of doctors reported being on treatment for a mental health condition, compared to, 28 (7.2%) of ambulance personnel.

Regarding managing work-related stress (WRS), more than a quarter, 103 (26.5%) of the ambulance personnel self-reported the need to smoke to manage WRS, while 53 (20.5%) of the doctors reported the need to use alcohol to manage WRS. Interestingly, 29 (4.5%) of the overall sample felt the need to use illicit drugs to manage WRS, which is higher than the current prevalence of illicit drug use. Most participants supported the provision of psychological counselling, 492 (76.0%) and addressing staff shortages, 483 (74.7%) to assist with reducing WRS.

Prevalence of resilience

The overall average CD-RISC-10 score was 27.6 (± 6.6) among the 647 healthcare workers in this study (Table 2 ). The average CD-RISC-10 score for the ambulance personnel was 28.0 (± 6.9), which was significantly higher than the average score of 27.1 (± 6.0) for the doctors ( p = 0.006). The total score for the CD-RISC-10 can be classified into a 4-level variable using quantiles: lowest (0–24), low (25–28), moderate (29–32), and highest (33–40) [ 15 ]. More than half of the doctors (58.7%) were classified as having the lowest or low resilience. However, for ambulance personnel, the majority (54.2%) were classified as having moderate or high resilience.

Factors associated with resilience

Bivariable analysis was performed to examine differences in CD-RISC-10 scores across several sociodemographic and work-related variables (Table 3 ). Compared with female doctors, male doctors had significantly greater resilience scores ( p < 0.001). Those in certain job categories, such as senior doctors and ambulance personnel, had significantly greater resilience than did junior doctors ( p = 0.019). In addition, doctors who earned in the highest salary bracket demonstrated greater resilience than did those who earned less ( p = 0.020). Doctors who were current smokers had greater resilience (30.7) than those who had never smoked (27.2) or were previous smokers (26.7) ( p = 0.012). In addition, a history of alcohol use significantly increased resilience for ambulance personnel (30.5) compared to current users (27.6) and never users (27.1) ( p = 0.002). Participants who self-reported as having been diagnosed with a mental health condition had significantly lower resilience scores compared to those who have not, for doctors ( p = 0.037), ambulance personnel ( p = 0.010) and overall sample ( p < 0.001). In addition, ambulance personnel and the overall sample currently on treatment for a mental health condition had significantly lower resilience scores ( p = 0.029 and p = 0.002 respectively). Lastly, participants who felt the need to drink alcohol to manage WRS had significantly lower resilience scores amongst doctors ( p = 0.034), ambulance personnel ( p = 0.048) and overall sample ( p = 0.002).

Unadjusted (see Supplementary Table S3 online) and adjusted (Supplementary Table S4 online) logistic regression analyses were also performed. Table 4 below provides the results from the multivariable logistic regression analysis performed with selected variables with p value less than 0.25 from Supplementary Table S4 online. For doctors, female gender, job category and overtime work significantly increased the odds of low resilience (OR 1.94, 95%CI 1.03–3.72, p = 0.043; OR 6.94, 95%CI 1.22–60.50, p = 0.044 and OR 13.88, 95%CI 1.61–368.00, p = 0.044 respectively) (Table 4 ). Conversely, salary and current smoking status significantly reduced the odds of low resilience amongst doctors (OR 0.13, 95%CI 0.02–0.64, p = 0.024 and OR 0.16, 95%CI 0.02–0.66, p = 0.027 respectively). In addition, for ambulance personnel and overall sample, only previous alcohol use significantly reduced the odds of low resilience (OR 0.44, 95%CI 0.20–0.94, p = 0.038 and OR 0.52, 95%CI 0.29–0.91, p = 0.024 respectively). It should also be noted that the results from the multivariable logistic analysis reported in Table 4 are consistent with the results from the bivariable analysis in Table 3 .

This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of resilience and determinants of psychological resilience among a group of healthcare workers in South Africa comprising doctors and ambulance personnel.

The study found the prevalence of psychological resilience among healthcare workers was relatively low, at 27.6 (± 6.6). The average score of the ambulance personnel (28.0 ± 6.9) was greater than that of the doctors (27.1 ± 6.0). Kang and colleagues reported an overall average score of 29.0 (± 6.8) for a group of ambulance personnel in China, which is higher than the overall average score obtained in this study [ 25 ]. A study comparing doctors and ambulance technicians in Spain, reported an overall average score of 30.6 (± 5.0), which was higher than that obtained in the present study [ 26 ]. A longitudinal study on healthcare workers in South Africa reported average scores of 26.7 (± 8.8) and 30 (± 6.7) for the two time points considered [ 3 ]. The average resilience score for the second time point of the longitudinal study was greater than that of the present study. Furthermore, two studies on Malaysian healthcare workers reported overall average scores of 28.6 (± 6.3) and 30.0 (± 6.3), respectively, both of which were higher than those in the present study [ 22 , 27 ]. Zhou and colleagues, however, reported an overall average score of 23.2 (± 9.3) in their study of Chinese resident doctors, which is lower than that obtained in the present study [ 28 ]. This variability in the level of resilience observed may be due to differences in the study context (population sampled, time when the study was conducted), resources available in the healthcare system and differences in cultural values and norms, which may result in different coping styles among healthcare workers [ 5 ]. Overall, the results from this study were consistent with results from comparative studies on the resilience of healthcare workers when considering the standard deviations reported.

The study revealed a statistically significant association between psychological resilience and gender, with females having significantly lower resilience than males. These results are consistent with previous studies on psychological resilience showing that female gender is associated with lower resilience scores [ 12 , 22 , 29 , 30 ]. This could be attributed to females assuming multiple roles at home and in the workplace, experiencing more emotional exhaustion and being more sensitive and susceptible to stress [ 12 , 29 ]. The difference could also be due to social desirability bias, with males answering in a way that portrays an image of being able to manage pressure better [ 22 ].

We observed that doctors who were current smokers had greater average resilience scores than did those who were previous smokers and those who had never smoked before. These results contrast with the results of previous studies in which current smokers were found to have significantly lower psychological resilience [ 31 ]. It is probable that current smoking may be reflective of a coping mechanism and could mask low levels of resilience among current smokers. Substance use and medication use have been used as maladaptive coping mechanisms to address mental health issues and work-related stress [ 14 , 32 ].

Similarly, in ambulance personnel and the overall sample, a significant relationship was found between psychological resilience and alcohol history, with previous alcohol users having reduced odds of low resilience. Guidelines for rehabilitation programs (alcohol and smoking) consider improving resilience to be necessary for preventing substance use onset, abuse problems and relapse [ 31 , 33 , 34 ]. In addition, Yamashita and colleagues reported that a lower relapse risk was associated with greater resilience [ 35 ]. It is also probable that previous alcohol use may be reflective of a coping mechanism and could mask low levels of resilience among previous alcohol users.

This study found no significant associations between psychological resilience and other sociodemographic or lifestyle factors, such as age, home language and relationship status. This is consistent with the results of previous research on resilience [ 18 , 36 , 37 ].

Years in the current role and professional qualifications were not found to be significant predictors of the CD-RISC-10 score in the present study. Wang and colleagues argued that senior healthcare workers have better experience and professional skills to address complex situations that arise in the workplace [ 21 ]. Previous researchers have reported that years in practice was positively associated with psychological resilience [ 20 , 23 ]. Afshari and colleagues noted that an increase in healthcare workers’ education and work experience may be linked to the progression of skills, which results in the development of positive coping strategies, leading to greater resilience [ 38 ]. Herman and colleagues noted that these inconsistencies observed between psychological resilience and predictive factors may be due to differences in study methodologies and the definition of resilience used by the investigators [ 9 ].

Notably, the average resilience of ambulance personnel was significantly greater than that of doctors in this study, similar to the findings of Mantas-Jiménez and colleagues, who compared doctors and ambulance technicians in Spain [ 26 ]. This could be attributable to the social demographic and work-related characteristics of ambulance personnel compared to doctors in the study. Ambulance personnel were older and mostly male, had longer years of service and worked less overtime compared to the doctors. Organisational factors such as the culture within the ambulance service could be different to the medical hospital-based environment. These factors have all been reported previously as factors associated with higher resilience for healthcare workers [ 11 ].

Overtime work was found to be significant negatively associated with resilience among doctors in the present study. These results are in line with the interventions recommended by the healthcare workers in the present study to reduce WRS, with most of the participants indicating that addressing staff shortages was important for reducing WRS. A study on nurses in China, also found that working longer hours a day resulted in significantly lower psychological resilience [ 39 ]. However, Rossouw and colleagues did not find any significant relationship between resilience and overtime hours in their study of healthcare workers in South Africa [ 18 ]. High workload and occupational stressors were likely to lead to low job satisfaction, poor work performance and high job turnover for healthcare workers, resulting in a vicious cycle and ultimately leading to burnout and low resilience [ 30 ].

The present study revealed a significantly negative association between psychological resilience and self-reported mental health conditions and treatment for mental health conditions for the overall sample. Past research on resilience has found that psychological resilience has been identified to have a protective role against mental health issues [ 40 , 41 ]. A study on Indonesian medical students, reported that higher resilience was moderately correlated with lower scores for depressive and anxious symptoms [ 42 ]. In addition, Keragholi and colleagues, in their study of Iranian ambulance personnel, also reported that mental health status was negatively associated with resilience [ 40 ]. A study on South African healthcare workers reported that healthcare workers using medication or other forms of treatment for their anxiety or depression symptoms had significantly lower resilience than did those not using medication [ 18 ]. Furthermore, stigma and denial related to mental health might impact the ability of healthcare workers to seek help, which could also lead to underreporting in research studies [ 18 ].

The resilience score of participants who reported needing to use alcohol to manage WRS was significantly lower than that of participants who reported not needing to use alcohol. In addition, the preference of most participants (76.7%) was for the provision of psychological counselling as an intervention that could be provided by institutions to assist with reducing WRS. This is a positive coping strategy compared to substance use, which is recognised as a maladaptive coping mechanism used by those with mental health issues or WRS [ 32 ]. In addition, resilience interacts with stress to impact on the development of addiction and relapse [ 33 ]. Other studies have also identified the protective role of psychological resilience on WRS [ 43 ].

Strengths and limitations

The primary strength of this study was that it included a large population of healthcare workers in South Africa. In addition, both previous surveys used to collect data for this study had good response rates. The study also used a validated and standardised questionnaire to measure the outcome variable, which provides an opportunity to compare the results of this study with those of previous studies.

This study had several limitations. First, as a secondary data analysis was undertaken, the information available was limited to what had been provided and collected from the previous two studies. Second, causation cannot be inferred via a cross-sectional study design, and the risk factors identified need to be interpreted accordingly. Third, as self-reported data were used, the risk of social desirability bias was high, as respondents may have been influenced by stigma associated with substance use and mental health. In addition, recall bias may have occurred during the initial data collection phase where the participants’ memory was relied upon. Most questions used in this study, however, did not require recall over many months. Fourth, selection bias was largely unavoidable, as participation in the surveys was voluntary, and those who had been experiencing problems such as PTSD or burnout may have been more likely to complete the survey, as PTSD and burnout were the focus of the primary studies. In addition, confidentiality concerns may also affect participation and contribute to bias. The initial investigators had put in place measures to mitigate this bias, including introductory letters to explain the data handling procedure and the preservation of confidentiality. Last, the healthy worker effect may result in the overestimation of healthcare workers’ resilience status since those with low levels of resilience may have already left active work.

Conclusion and recommendations

Resilience was relatively low in this group of South African healthcare workers compared to similar studies globally, highlighting the need to build resilience among healthcare workers in South Africa. This study demonstrated that resources need to be directed towards building resilience among female healthcare workers, those working long hours and earning lower income. In addition, support such as psychological counselling should be offered to healthcare workers who have been diagnosed with mental health conditions. Further research is needed to better characterise the sociodemographic and work-related factors impacting the psychological resilience of healthcare workers in South Africa. Additional research could focus on resilience specifically, consider a larger and more representative sample and include qualitative research methods. This will assist in understanding determinants of psychological resilience and may inform intervention strategies that would build psychological resilience in the healthcare workforce in South Africa.

Data availability

The data are available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author.

Abbreviations

Classification and regression tree

Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale

Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale 10

Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale 25

95% Confidence Interval

Coronavirus disease

Emergency medical services

Healthcare Workers

High-income countries

Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

Interquartile Range

Low-and middle-income countries

Multivariate Imputation by Chained Equation

Not applicable

National Health Insurance

Probability Value

Posttraumatic stress disorder

Standard deviation

Work-Related Stress

South African Rand

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank all the medical doctors and ambulance personnel who voluntarily participate in the primary data collection.

This research was partly funded by an award granted by the University of Cape Town’s Division of Actuarial Science, School of management studies and the Faculty of Health Sciences Research Committee.

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Thandokazi Mcizana

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Shahieda Adams, Saajida Khan & Itumeleng Ntatamala

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Saajida Khan

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T.M. conceptualised the study and was responsible for the data analysis, initial write-up and subsequent manuscript revisions. I.N. provided part of the dataset and assisted with study conceptualisation, data analysis and write-up of this study. S.A. assisted with study conceptualisation, data analysis and write-up of this study. S.K. provided part of the dataset and made editorial manuscript revisions. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Mcizana, T., Adams, S., Khan, S. et al. Sociodemographic and work-related factors associated with psychological resilience in South African healthcare workers: a cross-sectional study. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 979 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11430-0

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11430-0

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Nursing is a profession that has always worked with diverse people and communities and has taken a social justice approach to care. Nursing has also undertaken research that includes diverse groups and communities. However, nurse researchers working with and undertaking research with diverse groups and communities may encounter problems in executing the research. This may be for reasons such as poor understanding of cultural and racial difference, not having an inclusive research team, for example, LGBTQIA+ researchers to help conduct LGBTQIA+ focused research or using an ableist approach, all of which can lead to exclusion, diminished trust and credibility. In this commentary, we draw on Hollowood’s doctoral journey and Moorley’s research experience, where both work with and research diverse communities’ health. Nurse researchers need to apply methodologies and approaches that are culturally sensitive and inclusive and here we offer essential tips, which have helped us by drawing on culturally specific and diversity-sensitive methods and frameworks to support inquiries which aim to improve the situation of the diverse communities nursing serves.

Choosing culturally sensitive theoretical frameworks and methodologies

Whiteness has dominated nursing, 1 and this also extends to nursing research where dominant western philosophies and methodologies are applied. Nurse researchers have not had many culturally and racially sensitive frameworks to choose from and so their research on, for example, race and culture has mainly used frameworks framed on whiteness and this can lead to health and care being interpreted, analysed and recommendations made based on white lens. One of the frameworks we advocate for is The Silences Framework. 2 It is a powerful tool to help uncover and understand marginalised discourses in research. This framework explicitly supports the researcher to identify and address the ‘silences’ which sit within a group and impact on their experiences and perspectives. ‘Silences’ refers to the areas of research that we know little about, …

Funding The authors have not declared a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interests None declared.

Provenance and peer review Commissioned; internally peer reviewed.

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Investigating the superconducting state of 2 H − NbS 2 as seen by the vortex lattice

A. alshemi, e. campillo, e. m. forgan, r. cubitt, m. abdel-hafiez, and e. blackburn, phys. rev. research 6 , 033218 – published 26 august 2024.

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Supplemental Material

INTRODUCTION
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

2 H − NbS 2 is a classic example of an anisotropic multiband superconductor, with significant recent work focusing on the interesting responses seen when high magnetic fields are applied precisely parallel to the hexagonal niobium planes. It is often contrasted with its sister compound 2 H − NbSe 2 because they have similar onset temperatures for superconductivity, but 2 H − NbS 2 has no charge density wave whereas in 2 H − NbSe 2 the charge density wave order couples strongly to the superconductivity. Using small-angle neutron scattering, a bulk-sensitive probe, we have studied the vortex lattice and how it responds to the underlying superconducting anisotropy. This is done by controlling the orientation of the field with respect to the Nb planes. The superconducting anisotropy, Γ a c = 7.07 ± 0.2 , is found to be field independent over the range measured (0.15 to 1.25 T), and the magnetic field distribution as a function of the applied magnetic field is found to be in excellent quantitative agreement with anisotropic London theory modified with a core-size cutoff correction, providing the first complete validation of this model. We find values of λ a b = 141.9 ± 1.5 nm for the in-plane London penetration depth, and λ c ∼ 1 µ m for the out-of-plane response. The field-independence indicates that we are primarily sampling the larger of the two gaps generating the superconductivity in this material.

Received 30 April 2024
Accepted 25 July 2024

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevResearch.6.033218

Published by the American Physical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published article's title, journal citation, and DOI. Funded by Bibsam .

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1 Division of Synchrotron Radiation Research, Department of Physics, Lund University , SE-22100 Lund, Sweden
2 School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Birmingham , Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom
3 Institut Laue Langevin , 71 Avenue des Martyrs, F-38000 Grenoble cedex 9, France
4 Department of Applied Physics and Astronomy, University of Sharjah , P.O. Box 27272 Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
5 Department of Physics and Astronomy, Uppsala University , Box 516, SE-75120 Uppsala, Sweden
* Contact author: [email protected]

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Vol. 6, Iss. 3 — August - October 2024

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Strongly Correlated Materials
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Schematic diagram of the experimental setup. (a) Typical small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) instrument setup for diffraction by a superconducting vortex lattice. The neutrons pass through a velocity selector, which sets their average wavelength (usually with a full-width half-maximum (FWHM) spread ∼ 10 % ). The beam is well collimated, with a long evacuated flight path before and after the sample to minimize air scattering. The transmitted main beam is caught on a neutron-absorbing beamstop to allow the Bragg reflections, which are scattered at small angles, to be visible on a 2D multidetector. The sample crystal structure is represented here, while the actual crystal orientation used during the experiment is shown in (c). (b) Sketch of the “parallel” field geometry used in the experiment; here the individual vortices are aligned parallel to the applied field, and then by rotating the magnet and sample together through angles ω or ϕ , the Bragg condition for the vortex lattice can be met. When the data obtained at different angles are summed together, an image such as that shown on the multidetector will be seen. (c) Experimental geometry. The coordinate system is defined with the z direction along B , and the components of observed VL scattering vectors are denoted as q x and q y . The applied magnetic field B is rotated away from the c -direction by an angle Ω , and the longitudinal and transverse components of the field modulation are denoted by b z and b x & b y , respectively.

SANS diffraction patterns of the VL in 2 H − NbS 2 as a function of field rotation angle Ω . We show the results of measurements made at 1.5 K for seven different field angles, Ω , at either 0.15 T or 0.25 T, depending on the closeness of the Bragg spots to the direct beam. The images are sums over ϕ rocking scans about the horizontal axis perpendicular to the incoming beam, minus backgrounds. The direct beam has been masked off in the software. The white and green dashed lines in panels (a), (b), and (c) represent the opening angles of α and ) and Domain II (), respectively. The white dashed ellipse depicted in panel (d) lies on top of the Bragg reflections from the distorted VL. It has a major-to-minor axis ratio Γ VL and the reciprocal-space area of the ellipse is given by π q ▵ 2 , with q ▵ = 2 π ( 2 B / 3 Φ 0 ) 1 / 2 .

The B − Ω phase diagram of the VL in 2 H − NbS 2 at T = 1.5 K . The shaded areas are represented by a gradient of green color, transitioning from dark green to pale green, signifying the change in VL structure as the direction of the magnetic field B is changed relative to the crystallographic a b plane. Hexagon symbols represent distinct vortex lattice domains, with dark blue hexagons for domain I (), light green for domain II (), and a teal dodecagon indicating regions with mixed domains (I and II). The dashed black lines define the transitions between these domains as a function of B and Ω . The upper critical field ( B c2 ) line is the parametrization from the ratio of B c 2 orb ( θ ) / B c 2 ∥ a b orb using values from Ref. [ 24 ]. B c 1 ∥ c is estimated to be ∼ 30 mT [ 14 ].

Spin-splitting of the VL Bragg reflections due to spin-flip scattering. Vortex lattice diffraction patterns as a function of rotation angle ( Ω ) Vortex lattice rocking curves at 0.45 T and 1.5 K. Each rocking curve is fitted by two Lorentzian. The VL anisotropy increases as Ω comes close to the basal plane, as indicated by the dashed white lines in the upper panels (a–c). Lower panels (d–f) represent the rocking curves corresponding to the diffraction patterns in the upper panels. The rocking curves show the scattered intensity distribution plotted as a function of the tilt angle deviation ( ϕ + Δ ϕ ) relative to the rocking curve center which has slight zero offset at ϕ = 0 . 09 ∘ . Two distinct peaks, indicative of Zeeman splitting from transverse field modulation (spin flip), the top Bragg reflection is represented in red, while the bottom Bragg reflection is depicted in purple. Both sets of peaks are fitted with two Lorentzians, as shown by the dashed lines, delineating the peak intensities and width for the top and bottom spots as a function of rotation angle ( Ω ). The scattering geometry triangles are depicted in panel (e) (with angles exaggerated for clarity) for the two different SF processes: Spin-up to spin-down (left-hand side) and spin-down to spin-up (right-hand side), The scattering angle ( 2 θ = 2 ϕ 0 ) is the same in both cases, but different tilt angles are required to satisfy the Bragg condition ϕ 2 / 3 (kinetic energy loss) and ϕ 1 / 4 (kinetic energy gain) for the top and bottom Bragg spots, respectively.

Field-independent vortex lattice anisotropy. The VL anisotropy measured at 1.5 K as a function of the applied field and the angle between the field and the c axis ( Ω ). The dashed line shows the VL anisotropy calculated using Eq. ( 1 ), with Γ a c = 7.07 ; the solid line is for Γ a c = ∞ .

Field dependence of the vortex lattice form factor for different field-sample angle Ω . Each panel shows the vortex lattice form factor as a function of the applied magnetic field B , measured at 1.5 K for a particular value of Ω , ranging from 30 ∘ to 87 . 5 ∘ . For the upper panels, scattering from two distinct hexagonal vortex lattice domains was present, denoted as Domain I () and Domain II (), while for the lower panels, the scattering arises only from Domain II. The data points represent experimental measurements of | F ( q i ) | 2 with their respective error bars (see Supplemental Material Note 1 [ 48 ]). The dashed black lines are the results from fits to Eq. ( 14 ), using theoretical values for the scattering vectors q of the Bragg peaks assuming Γ a c = 7 . Hexagons are depicted for each Ω to visualize the vortex lattice, constructed based on the actual anisotropy ratio Γ VL ( Ω ).

Magnetic field components b x , b y , and b z generating the form factor from the vortex lattice at the Bragg peaks from Domain I and from Domain II, as a function of angle Ω taken at 1.5 K for fields 0.15 and 1.25 T.

Vortex lattice form factor for angles Ω = 80 ∘ , 85 ∘ , and 87 . 5 ∘ as a function of the field at 1.5 K.

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Probiotics: Usefulness and Safety

.header_greentext{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_bluetext{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_redtext{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_purpletext{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_yellowtext{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_blacktext{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_whitetext{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;}.Green_Header{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Blue_Header{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Red_Header{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Purple_Header{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Yellow_Header{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Black_Header{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.White_Header{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;} What are probiotics?

Probiotics are live microorganisms that are intended to have health benefits when consumed or applied to the body. They can be found in yogurt and other fermented foods, dietary supplements , and beauty products. Cases of severe or fatal infections have been reported in premature infants who were given probiotics, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has warned health care providers about this risk.

Although people often think of bacteria and other microorganisms as harmful “germs,” many are actually helpful. Some bacteria help digest food, destroy disease-causing cells, or produce vitamins. Many of the microorganisms in probiotic products are the same as or similar to microorganisms that naturally live in our bodies.

What types of bacteria are in probiotics?

Probiotics may contain a variety of microorganisms. The most common are bacteria that belong to groups called Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium . Other bacteria may also be used as probiotics, and so may yeasts such as Saccharomyces boulardii .

Different types of probiotics may have different effects. For example, if a specific kind of Lactobacillus helps prevent an illness, that doesn’t necessarily mean that another kind of Lactobacillus or any of the Bifidobacterium probiotics would do the same thing.

Are prebiotics the same as probiotics?

No, prebiotics aren’t the same as probiotics. Prebiotics are nondigestible food components that selectively stimulate the growth or activity of desirable microorganisms.

What are synbiotics?

Synbiotics are products that combine probiotics and prebiotics.

How popular are probiotics?

The 2012 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) showed that about 4 million (1.6 percent) U.S. adults had used probiotics or prebiotics in the past 30 days. Among adults, probiotics or prebiotics were the third most commonly used dietary supplement other than vitamins and minerals. The use of probiotics by adults quadrupled between 2007 and 2012. The 2012 NHIS also showed that 300,000 children age 4 to 17 (0.5 percent) had used probiotics or prebiotics in the 30 days before the survey.

How might probiotics work?

Probiotics may have a variety of effects in the body, and different probiotics may act in different ways.

Probiotics might:

Help your body maintain a healthy community of microorganisms or help your body’s community of microorganisms return to a healthy condition after being disturbed
Produce substances that have desirable effects
Influence your body’s immune response.

How are probiotics regulated in the United States?

Government regulation of probiotics in the United States is complex. Depending on a probiotic product’s intended use, the FDA might regulate it as a dietary supplement, a food ingredient, or a drug.

Many probiotics are sold as dietary supplements, which don’t require FDA approval before they are marketed. Dietary supplement labels may make claims about how the product affects the structure or function of the body without FDA approval, but they aren’t allowed to make health claims, such as saying the supplement lowers your risk of getting a disease, without the FDA’s consent.

If a probiotic is going to be marketed as a drug for treatment of a disease or disorder, it has to meet stricter requirements. It must be proven safe and effective for its intended use through clinical trials and be approved by the FDA before it can be sold.

.header_greentext{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_bluetext{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_redtext{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_purpletext{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_yellowtext{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_blacktext{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_whitetext{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;}.Green_Header{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Blue_Header{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Red_Header{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Purple_Header{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Yellow_Header{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Black_Header{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.White_Header{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;} Learning About the Microbiome

The community of microorganisms that lives on us and in us is called the “microbiome,” and it’s a hot topic for research. The Human Microbiome Project, supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) from 2007 to 2016, played a key role in this research by mapping the normal bacteria that live in and on the healthy human body. With this understanding of a normal microbiome as the basis, researchers around the world, including many supported by NIH, are now exploring the links between changes in the microbiome and various diseases. They’re also developing new therapeutic approaches designed to modify the microbiome to treat disease and support health.

The National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) is among the many agencies funding research on the microbiome. Researchers supported by NCCIH are studying the interactions between components of food and microorganisms in the digestive tract. The focus is on the ways in which diet-microbiome interactions may lead to the production of substances with beneficial health effects.

.header_greentext{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_bluetext{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_redtext{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_purpletext{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_yellowtext{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_blacktext{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_whitetext{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;}.Green_Header{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Blue_Header{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Red_Header{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Purple_Header{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Yellow_Header{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Black_Header{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.White_Header{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;} What has science shown about the effectiveness of probiotics for health conditions?

A great deal of research has been done on probiotics, but much remains to be learned about whether they’re helpful and safe for various health conditions.

Probiotics have shown promise for a variety of health purposes, including prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhea (including diarrhea caused by Clostridium difficile ), prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis and sepsis in premature infants, treatment of infant colic , treatment of periodontal disease , and induction or maintenance of remission in ulcerative colitis .

However, in most instances, we still don’t know which probiotics are helpful and which are not. We also don’t know how much of the probiotic people would have to take or who would be most likely to benefit. Even for the conditions that have been studied the most, researchers are still working toward finding the answers to these questions.

The following sections summarize the research on probiotics for some of the conditions for which they’ve been studied.

Gastrointestinal Conditions

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Probiotics have been studied for antibiotic-associated diarrhea in general, as well as for antibiotic-associated diarrhea caused by one specific bacterium, Clostridium difficile . This section discusses the research on antibiotic-associated diarrhea in general. C. difficile is discussed in a separate section below.
A 2017 review of 17 studies (3,631 total participants) in people who were not hospitalized indicated that giving probiotics to patients along with antibiotics was associated with a decrease of about half in the likelihood of antibiotic-associated diarrhea. However, this conclusion was considered tentative because the quality of the studies was only moderate. Patients who were given probiotics had no more side effects than patients who didn’t receive them.
Probiotics may be helpful for antibiotic-associated diarrhea in young and middle-aged people, but a benefit has not been demonstrated in elderly people, according to a 2016 review of 30 studies (7,260 participants), 5 of which focused on people age 65 or older. It’s uncertain whether probiotics actually don’t work in elderly people or whether no effect was seen because there were only a few studies of people in this age group.
A review of 23 studies (with 3,938 participants) of probiotics to prevent antibiotic-associated diarrhea in children provided moderate quality evidence that probiotics had a protective effect. No serious side effects were observed in children who were otherwise healthy, except for the infection for which they were being treated.

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The bacterium Clostridium difficile can infect the colon (large intestine) of patients who have received antibiotics, causing diarrhea that can range from mild to severe. C. difficile infection is difficult to treat and sometimes comes back after treatment. It’s more common in people who take antibiotics long-term and in elderly people, and it can spread in hospitals and nursing homes. C. difficile infection affects about half a million people a year in the United States and causes about 15,000 deaths.
A 2017 analysis of 31 studies (8,672 total patients) concluded that it is moderately certain that probiotics can reduce the risk of C. difficile diarrhea in adults and children who are receiving antibiotics. Most of these studies involved hospital patients. The analysis also concluded that the use of probiotics along with antibiotics appears to be safe, except for patients who are very weak or have poorly functioning immune systems.
The types of probiotics that would be most useful in reducing the risk of C. difficile diarrhea, the length of time for which they should be taken, and the most appropriate doses are uncertain.

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A 2014 review of 14 studies (1,182 participants) of probiotics for constipation in adults showed some evidence of benefit, especially for Bifidobacterium lactis .
A 2017 evaluation of 9 studies (778 participants) of probiotics for constipation in elderly people indicated that probiotics produced a small but meaningful benefit. The type of bacteria most often tested was Bifidobacterium longum . The researchers who performed the evaluation suggested that probiotics might be helpful for chronic constipation in older people as an addition to the usual forms of treatment.
A 2017 review looked at 7 studies of probiotics for constipation in children (515 participants). The studies were hard to compare because of differences in the groups of children studied, the types of probiotics used, and other factors. The reviewers did not find evidence that any of the probiotics tested in the children were helpful. A second 2017 review, which included 4 of the same studies and 2 others (498 total participants in the 6 studies examined), took a more optimistic view of the evidence, noting that overall, probiotics did increase stool frequency, and that the effect was more noticeable in Asian than European children.

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Diarrhea is a common side effect of chemotherapy or radiotherapy for cancer. It’s been suggested that probiotics might help prevent or treat this type of diarrhea. However, a 2018 review of 12 studies (1,554 participants) found that the evidence for a beneficial effect of probiotics was inconclusive.

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In diverticulosis, small pouches develop at weak spots in the wall of the colon (large intestine). In most cases, this does not cause any symptoms. If symptoms (such as bloating, constipation, diarrhea, or cramping) do occur, the condition is called diverticular disease. If any of the pouches become inflamed, the condition is called diverticulitis. Patients with diverticulitis can have severe abdominal pain and may develop serious complications.
A 2016 review of 11 studies (764 participants) of probiotics for diverticular disease was unable to reach conclusions on whether the probiotics were helpful because of the poor quality of the studies.

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Inflammatory bowel disease is a term for a group of conditions that cause a portion of the digestive system to become inflamed; the most common types are ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, diarrhea (which may be bloody), loss of appetite, weight loss, and fever. The symptoms can range from mild to severe, and they may come and go. Treatment includes medicines and in some cases, surgery.
A 2014 review of 21 studies in patients with ulcerative colitis (1,700 participants) indicated that adding probiotics, prebiotics, or synbiotics to conventional treatment could be helpful in inducing or maintaining remission of the disease. The same review also looked at 14 studies (746 participants) of probiotics, prebiotics, or synbiotics for Crohn’s disease and did not find evidence that they were beneficial.

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A 2018 review of 53 studies (5,545 total participants) of probiotics for irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) concluded that probiotics may have beneficial effects on global IBS symptoms and abdominal pain, but it was not possible to draw definite conclusions about their effectiveness or to identify which species, strains, or combinations of probiotics are most likely to be helpful.

For more information, see the NCCIH fact sheet on irritable bowel syndrome .

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A 2018 review evaluated 11 studies (5,143 participants) of probiotics or prebiotics for prevention of traveler’s diarrhea and found evidence that they may be helpful. However, the review didn’t assess the quality of the studies and didn’t include data on side effects.
A 2017 clinical practice guideline by the International Society of Travel Medicine stated that there’s insufficient evidence to recommend probiotics or prebiotics to prevent or treat traveler’s diarrhea. The guidelines acknowledged that there’s evidence suggesting a small benefit but pointed out that studies vary greatly in terms of factors such as the probiotic strains used, the causes of the diarrhea, and geographic locations. Also, some studies had weaknesses in their design.

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Colic is excessive, unexplained crying in young infants. Babies with colic may cry for 3 hours a day or more, but they eat well and grow normally. The cause of colic is not well understood, but studies have shown differences in the microbial community in the digestive tract between infants who have colic and those who don’t, which suggests that microorganisms may be involved.
A 2018 review of 7 studies (471 participants) of probiotics for colic, 5 of which involved the probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri DSM 17938, found that this probiotic was associated with successful treatment (defined as a reduction of more than half in daily crying time). However, the effect was mainly seen in exclusively breastfed infants.
No harmful effects were seen in a review of 4 studies (345 participants) of L. reuteri DSM 17938 for colic or in a small NCCIH-funded study that included repeated physical examinations and blood tests in infants with colic who were given this probiotic, as well as parents’ reports of symptoms.

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Necrotizing enterocolitis is a serious, sometimes fatal disease that occurs in premature infants. It involves injury or damage to the intestinal tract, causing death of intestinal tissue. Its exact cause is unknown, but an abnormal reaction to food components and the microorganisms that live in a premature baby’s digestive tract may play a role.
A 2017 review of 23 studies (7,325 infants) showed that probiotics helped to prevent necrotizing enterocolitis in very-low-birth-weight infants. However, the results of individual studies varied; not all showed a benefit. Probiotics that included both Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium seemed to produce the best results, but it was not possible to identify the most beneficial strains within these large groups of bacteria.
None of the infants in the studies described above developed harmful short-term side effects from the probiotics. However, the long-term effects of receiving probiotics at such a young age are uncertain. Outside of these studies, there have been instances when probiotics did have harmful effects in newborns. In 2023, the FDA warned health care providers that premature infants who are given probiotics are at risk of severe, potentially fatal infections caused by the microorganisms in the products.

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Sepsis is a serious illness in which the body has a harmful, overwhelming response to an infection. It can cause major organs and body systems to stop working properly and can be life threatening. The risk of sepsis is highest in infants, children, the elderly, and people with serious medical problems. One group particularly at risk for sepsis is premature infants.
A review of 37 studies (9,416 participants) found that probiotics were helpful in reducing the risk of sepsis in premature infants.

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A small amount of research, all in infants and young children, has examined the possibility that probiotics might be helpful in preventing dental caries (also called cavities or tooth decay). A review of 7 studies (1,715 total participants) found that the use of probiotics was associated with fewer cavities in 4 of the 7 studies, but the quality of the evidence was low, and no definite conclusions about the effectiveness of probiotics could be reached.

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Periodontal diseases result from infections and inflammation of the gums and bone that surround and support the teeth. If the disease is severe, the gums can pull away from the teeth, bone can be lost, and teeth may loosen or fall out.
A 2016 review of 12 studies (452 participants) that evaluated probiotics for periodontal disease found evidence that they could be a helpful addition to treatment by reducing disease-causing bacteria and improving clinical signs of the disease. However, effects may differ for different probiotics.

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A review of 23 studies (1,919 participants) in which probiotics were tested for treating allergic rhinitis found some evidence that they may be helpful for improving symptoms and quality of life. However, because the studies tested different probiotics and measured different effects, no recommendations about the use of probiotics could be made. Few side effects of probiotics were reported in these studies.

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A review of 11 studies (910 participants) of probiotics for asthma in children had inconclusive results.

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Atopic dermatitis is an itchy chronic skin disorder that’s associated with allergies but not caused by them. It’s most common in infants and may start as early as age 2 to 6 months. Many people outgrow it by early adulthood. Atopic dermatitis is one of several types of eczema.
A 2017 review of 13 studies (1,271 participants) of probiotics for the treatment of atopic dermatitis in infants and children did not find consistent evidence of a beneficial effect. A review of 9 studies (269 participants) in adults provided preliminary evidence that some strains of probiotics might be beneficial for symptoms of atopic dermatitis.

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It’s been suggested that changes in people’s lifestyles and environment may have led to reduced contact with microorganisms early in life, and that this decrease may have contributed to an increase in allergies. This is sometimes called the “hygiene hypothesis,” although factors unrelated to hygiene, such as smaller family size and the use of antibiotics, may also play a role. Studies have been done in which probiotics were given to pregnant women and/or young infants in the hope of preventing the development of allergies.
A 2015 review of 17 studies (4,755 participants) that evaluated the use of probiotics during pregnancy or early infancy found that infants exposed to probiotics had a lower risk of developing atopic dermatitis, especially if they were exposed to a mixture of probiotics. However, probiotics did not have an effect on the risks of asthma, wheezing, or hay fever (allergic rhinitis).

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Research has identified mechanisms by which probiotics, either taken orally or used topically (applied to the skin), might influence acne. However, there has been very little research in people on probiotics for acne, and the American Academy of Dermatology’s 2016 guidelines for managing acne state that the existing evidence isn’t strong enough to justify any recommendations about the use of probiotics.

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When the liver is damaged and unable to remove toxic substances from the blood, the toxins can build up in the bloodstream and affect the nervous system. This may lead to impairments of brain function called hepatic encephalopathy.
A 2017 review looked at 21 studies (1,420 participants) of probiotics for hepatic encephalopathy and concluded that they were generally of low quality. There was evidence that compared with a placebo (an inactive substance) or no treatment, probiotics probably had beneficial effects on hepatic encephalopathy, but it was uncertain whether probiotics were better than lactulose, a conventional treatment for liver disease.

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Probiotics have been tested for their effects against upper respiratory infections (a group that includes the common cold, middle ear infections, sinusitis, and various throat infections). A 2015 evaluation of 12 studies with 3,720 total participants indicated that people taking probiotics may have fewer and shorter upper respiratory infections. However, the quality of the evidence was low because some of the studies were poorly conducted.

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A 2015 review of 9 studies (735 participants) of probiotics for the prevention of urinary tract infection did not find evidence of a beneficial effect.

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Probiotics have an extensive history of apparently safe use, particularly in healthy people. However, few studies have looked at the safety of probiotics in detail, so there’s a lack of solid information on the frequency and severity of side effects.
The risk of harmful effects from probiotics is greater in people with severe illnesses or compromised immune systems. When probiotics are being considered for high-risk individuals, such as premature infants or seriously ill hospital patients, the potential risks of probiotics should be carefully weighed against their benefits. Cases of severe or fatal infections have been reported in premature infants who were given probiotics, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has warned health care providers about this risk.
Possible harmful effects of probiotics include infections, production of harmful substances by the probiotic microorganisms, and transfer of antibiotic resistance genes from probiotic microorganisms to other microorganisms in the digestive tract.
Some probiotic products have been reported to contain microorganisms other than those listed on the label. In some instances, these contaminants may pose serious health risks.

NCCIH-Funded Research

NCCIH sponsors a variety of research projects related to probiotics or the microbiome. In addition to the previously mentioned studies on diet-microbiome interactions in the digestive tract, recent topics include:

The mechanisms by which probiotics may help to reduce postmenopausal bone loss
Engineering probiotics to synthesize natural substances for microbiome-brain research
The mechanisms by which certain probiotics may relieve chronic pelvic pain
The effects of a specific Bifidobacterium strain on changes in short-chain fatty acid production in the gut that may play a role in antibiotic-associated diarrhea.

More To Consider

Don’t use probiotics as a reason to postpone seeing your health care provider about any health problem.
If you’re considering a probiotic dietary supplement, consult your health care provider first. This is especially important if you have health problems. Anyone with a serious underlying health condition should be monitored closely while taking probiotics.
Take charge of your health—talk with your health care providers about any complementary health approaches you use. Together, you can make shared, well-informed decisions.

For More Information

Nccih clearinghouse.

The NCCIH Clearinghouse provides information on NCCIH and complementary and integrative health approaches, including publications and searches of Federal databases of scientific and medical literature. The Clearinghouse does not provide medical advice, treatment recommendations, or referrals to practitioners.

Toll-free in the U.S.: 1-888-644-6226

Telecommunications relay service (TRS): 7-1-1

Website: https://www.nccih.nih.gov

Email: [email protected] (link sends email)

Know the Science

NCCIH and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) provide tools to help you understand the basics and terminology of scientific research so you can make well-informed decisions about your health. Know the Science features a variety of materials, including interactive modules, quizzes, and videos, as well as links to informative content from Federal resources designed to help consumers make sense of health information.

Explaining How Research Works (NIH)

Know the Science: How To Make Sense of a Scientific Journal Article

Understanding Clinical Studies (NIH)

A service of the National Library of Medicine, PubMed® contains publication information and (in most cases) brief summaries of articles from scientific and medical journals. For guidance from NCCIH on using PubMed, see How To Find Information About Complementary Health Approaches on PubMed .

Website: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/

MedlinePlus

To provide resources that help answer health questions, MedlinePlus (a service of the National Library of Medicine) brings together authoritative information from the National Institutes of Health as well as other Government agencies and health-related organizations.

Website: https://www.medlineplus.gov

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Bafeta A, Koh M, Riveros C, et al. Harms reporting in randomized controlled trials of interventions aimed at modifying microbiota: a systematic review. Annals of Internal Medicine . 2018;169(4):240-247.
Blaabjerg S, Artzi DM, Aabenhus R. Probiotics for the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhea in outpatients—a systematic review and meta-analysis. Antibiotics . 2017;6(4).pii:E21.
Butel M-J. Probiotics, gut microbiota and health. Médecine et Maladies Infectieuses . 2014;44(1):1-8.
Cohen PA. Probiotic safety—no guarantees. JAMA Internal Medicine . 2018;178(12):1577-1578.
Degnan FH. The US Food and Drug Administration and probiotics: regulatory categorization. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2008;46(Suppl 2):S133–S136.
Didari T, Solki S, Mozaffari S, et al. A systematic review of the safety of probiotics. Expert Opinion on Drug Safety . 2014;13(2):227–239.
Dryl R, Szajewska H. Probiotics for management of infantile colic: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Archives of Medical Science. 2018;14(5):1137-1143.
Fijan S. Microorganisms with claimed probiotic properties: an overview of recent literature. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2014;11(5):4745-4767.
Ford AC, Harris LA, Lacy BE, et al. Systematic review with meta-analysis: the efficacy of prebiotics, probiotics, synbiotics and antibiotics in irritable bowel syndrome. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics . 2018;48(10):1044-1060.
Goldenberg JZ, Yap C, Lytvyn L, et al. Probiotics for the prevention of Clostridium difficile -associated diarrhea in adults and children. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2017;(12):CD006095. Accessed at www.cochranelibrary.com on January 23, 2018.
Guarner F, Khan AG, Garisch J, et al. World Gastroenterology Organisation Global Guidelines. Probiotics and Prebiotics. October 2011. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology . 2012;46(6):468–481.
Hempel S, Newberry SJ, Maher AR, et al. Probiotics for the prevention and treatment of antibiotic-associated diarrhea: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA . 2012;307(18):1959–1969.
Hempel S, Newberry S, Ruelaz A, et al. Safety of Probiotics to Reduce Risk and Prevent or Treat Disease. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment no. 200. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2011. AHRQ publication no. 11-E007.
Rao SC, Athalye-Jape GK, Deshpande GC, et al. Probiotic supplementation and late-onset sepsis in preterm infants: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2016;137(3):e20153684.
Sanders ME, Akkermans LM, Haller D, et al. Safety assessment of probiotics for human use. Gut Microbes . 2010;1(3):164-185.
Thomas JP, Raine T, Reddy S, et al. Probiotics for the prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis in very low-birth-weight infants: a meta-analysis and systematic review. Acta Paediatrica . 2017;106(11):1729-1741.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Warning Regarding Use of Probiotics in Preterm Infants. Issued September 29, 2023. Accessed at https://www.fda.gov/media/172606 on October 2, 2023.
Zuccotti G, Meneghin F, Aceti A, et al. Probiotics for prevention of atopic diseases in infants: systematic review and meta-analysis. Allergy. 2015;70(11):1356-13

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Bae J-M. Prophylactic efficacy of probiotics on travelers’ diarrhea: an adaptive meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Epidemiology and Health . 2018;40:e2018043.
Black LI, Clarke TC, Barnes PM, Stussman BJ, Nahin RL. Use of complementary health approaches among children aged 4-17 years in the United States: National Health Interview Survey, 2007-2012. National health statistics reports; no 78. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2015.
Cao L, Wang L, Yang L, et al. Long-term effect of early-life supplementation with probiotics on preventing atopic dermatitis: a meta-analysis. Journal of Dermatological Treatment . 2015;26(6):537-540.
Clarke TC, Black LI, Stussman BJ, Barnes PM, Nahin RL. Trends in the use of complementary health approaches among adults: United States, 2002–2012. National health statistics reports; no 79. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2015.
Dalal R, McGee RG, Riordan SM, et al. Probiotics for people with hepatic encephalopathy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 2017;(2):CD008716. Accessed at www.cochranelibrary.com on November 15, 2018.
Dimidi E, Christodoulides S, Fragkos KC, et al. The effect of probiotics on functional constipation in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition . 2014;100(4):1075-1084.
Doron S, Snydman DR. Risk and safety of probiotics. Clinical Infectious Diseases . 2015;60(Suppl 2):S129-S134.
Fatheree NY, Liu Y, Taylor CM, et al. Lactobacillus reuteri for infants with colic: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Journal of Pediatrics . 2017;191:170-178.
Ghouri YA, Richards DM, Rahimi EF, et al. Systematic review of randomized controlled trials of probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics in inflammatory bowel disease. Clinical and Experimental Gastroenterology . 2014;7:473-487.
Gibson GR, Hutkins R, Sanders ME, et al. Expert consensus document: The International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) consensus statement on the definition and scope of prebiotics. Nature Reviews. Gastroenterology & Hepatology . 2017;14(8):491-502.
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Acknowledgments

NCCIH thanks Yisong Wang, Ph.D., and David Shurtleff, Ph.D., for their review of the 2019 update of this publication.

This publication is not copyrighted and is in the public domain. Duplication is encouraged.

NCCIH has provided this material for your information. It is not intended to substitute for the medical expertise and advice of your health care provider(s). We encourage you to discuss any decisions about treatment or care with your health care provider. The mention of any product, service, or therapy is not an endorsement by NCCIH.

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Methodology

Research Methods | Definitions, Types, Examples

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.

First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :

Qualitative vs. quantitative : Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
Primary vs. secondary : Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that has already been collected by someone else?
Descriptive vs. experimental : Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

Second, decide how you will analyze the data .

For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables.
For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.

Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.

Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.

Qualitative vs. quantitative data

Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.

For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .

If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .


Qualitative		to broader populations. .
Quantitative		.

You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Primary vs. secondary research

Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.


Primary	.	methods.
Secondary

Descriptive vs. experimental data

In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .

In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.


Descriptive		. .
Experimental

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Research methods for collecting data
Research method	Primary or secondary?	Qualitative or quantitative?	When to use
	Primary	Quantitative	To test cause-and-effect relationships.
	Primary	Quantitative	To understand general characteristics of a population.
Interview/focus group	Primary	Qualitative	To gain more in-depth understanding of a topic.
Observation	Primary	Either	To understand how something occurs in its natural setting.
	Secondary	Either	To situate your research in an existing body of work, or to evaluate trends within a research topic.
	Either	Either	To gain an in-depth understanding of a specific group or context, or when you don’t have the resources for a large study.

Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.

Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.

Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:

From open-ended surveys and interviews , literature reviews , case studies , ethnographies , and other sources that use text rather than numbers.
Using non-probability sampling methods .

Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .

Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).

You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:

During an experiment .
Using probability sampling methods .

Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.

Research methods for analyzing data
Research method	Qualitative or quantitative?	When to use
	Quantitative	To analyze data collected in a statistically valid manner (e.g. from experiments, surveys, and observations).
Meta-analysis	Quantitative	To statistically analyze the results of a large collection of studies. Can only be applied to studies that collected data in a statistically valid manner.
	Qualitative	To analyze data collected from interviews, , or textual sources. To understand general themes in the data and how they are communicated.
	Either	To analyze large volumes of textual or visual data collected from surveys, literature reviews, or other sources. Can be quantitative (i.e. frequencies of words) or qualitative (i.e. meanings of words).

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Chi square test of independence
Statistical power
Descriptive statistics
Degrees of freedom
Pearson correlation
Null hypothesis
Double-blind study
Case-control study
Research ethics
Data collection
Hypothesis testing
Structured interviews

Research bias

Hawthorne effect
Unconscious bias
Recall bias
Halo effect
Self-serving bias
Information bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

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When A.I.’s Output Is a Threat to A.I. Itself

As A.I.-generated data becomes harder to detect, it’s increasingly likely to be ingested by future A.I., leading to worse results.

By Aatish Bhatia

Aatish Bhatia interviewed A.I. researchers, studied research papers and fed an A.I. system its own output.

The internet is becoming awash in words and images generated by artificial intelligence.

Sam Altman, OpenAI’s chief executive, wrote in February that the company generated about 100 billion words per day — a million novels’ worth of text, every day, an unknown share of which finds its way onto the internet.

A.I.-generated text may show up as a restaurant review, a dating profile or a social media post. And it may show up as a news article, too: NewsGuard, a group that tracks online misinformation, recently identified over a thousand websites that churn out error-prone A.I.-generated news articles .

In reality, with no foolproof methods to detect this kind of content, much will simply remain undetected.

All this A.I.-generated information can make it harder for us to know what’s real. And it also poses a problem for A.I. companies. As they trawl the web for new data to train their next models on — an increasingly challenging task — they’re likely to ingest some of their own A.I.-generated content, creating an unintentional feedback loop in which what was once the output from one A.I. becomes the input for another.

In the long run, this cycle may pose a threat to A.I. itself. Research has shown that when generative A.I. is trained on a lot of its own output, it can get a lot worse.

Here’s a simple illustration of what happens when an A.I. system is trained on its own output, over and over again:

This is part of a data set of 60,000 handwritten digits.

When we trained an A.I. to mimic those digits, its output looked like this.

This new set was made by an A.I. trained on the previous A.I.-generated digits. What happens if this process continues?

After 20 generations of training new A.I.s on their predecessors’ output, the digits blur and start to erode.

After 30 generations, they converge into a single shape.

While this is a simplified example, it illustrates a problem on the horizon.

Imagine a medical-advice chatbot that lists fewer diseases that match your symptoms, because it was trained on a narrower spectrum of medical knowledge generated by previous chatbots. Or an A.I. history tutor that ingests A.I.-generated propaganda and can no longer separate fact from fiction.

Just as a copy of a copy can drift away from the original, when generative A.I. is trained on its own content, its output can also drift away from reality, growing further apart from the original data that it was intended to imitate.

In a paper published last month in the journal Nature, a group of researchers in Britain and Canada showed how this process results in a narrower range of A.I. output over time — an early stage of what they called “model collapse.”

The eroding digits we just saw show this collapse. When untethered from human input, the A.I. output dropped in quality (the digits became blurry) and in diversity (they grew similar).

How an A.I. that draws digits “collapses” after being trained on its own output

	“6”	“8”	“9”
Handwritten digits
Initial A.I. output
After 10 generations
After 20 generations
After 30 generations

If only some of the training data were A.I.-generated, the decline would be slower or more subtle. But it would still occur, researchers say, unless the synthetic data was complemented with a lot of new, real data.

Degenerative A.I.

In one example, the researchers trained a large language model on its own sentences over and over again, asking it to complete the same prompt after each round.

When they asked the A.I. to complete a sentence that started with “To cook a turkey for Thanksgiving, you…,” at first, it responded like this:

Initial A.I. output

Even at the outset, the A.I. “hallucinates.” But when the researchers further trained it on its own sentences, it got a lot worse…

After two generations, it started simply printing long lists.

And after four generations, it began to repeat phrases incoherently.

“The model becomes poisoned with its own projection of reality,” the researchers wrote of this phenomenon.

This problem isn’t just confined to text. Another team of researchers at Rice University studied what would happen when the kinds of A.I. that generate images are repeatedly trained on their own output — a problem that could already be occurring as A.I.-generated images flood the web.

They found that glitches and image artifacts started to build up in the A.I.’s output, eventually producing distorted images with wrinkled patterns and mangled fingers.

A grid of A.I.-generated faces showing wrinkled patterns and visual distortions.

When A.I. image models are trained on their own output, they can produce distorted images, mangled fingers or strange patterns.

A.I.-generated images by Sina Alemohammad and others .

“You’re kind of drifting into parts of the space that are like a no-fly zone,” said Richard Baraniuk , a professor who led the research on A.I. image models.

The researchers found that the only way to stave off this problem was to ensure that the A.I. was also trained on a sufficient supply of new, real data.

While selfies are certainly not in short supply on the internet, there could be categories of images where A.I. output outnumbers genuine data, they said.

For example, A.I.-generated images in the style of van Gogh could outnumber actual photographs of van Gogh paintings in A.I.’s training data, and this may lead to errors and distortions down the road. (Early signs of this problem will be hard to detect because the leading A.I. models are closed to outside scrutiny, the researchers said.)

Why collapse happens

All of these problems arise because A.I.-generated data is often a poor substitute for the real thing.

This is sometimes easy to see, like when chatbots state absurd facts or when A.I.-generated hands have too many fingers.

But the differences that lead to model collapse aren’t necessarily obvious — and they can be difficult to detect.

When generative A.I. is “trained” on vast amounts of data, what’s really happening under the hood is that it is assembling a statistical distribution — a set of probabilities that predicts the next word in a sentence, or the pixels in a picture.

For example, when we trained an A.I. to imitate handwritten digits, its output could be arranged into a statistical distribution that looks like this:

Distribution of A.I.-generated data

Examples of initial A.I. output:

The distribution shown here is simplified for clarity.

The peak of this bell-shaped curve represents the most probable A.I. output — in this case, the most typical A.I.-generated digits. The tail ends describe output that is less common.

Notice that when the model was trained on human data, it had a healthy spread of possible outputs, which you can see in the width of the curve above.

But after it was trained on its own output, this is what happened to the curve:

Distribution of A.I.-generated data when trained on its own output

It gets taller and narrower. As a result, the model becomes more and more likely to produce a smaller range of output, and the output can drift away from the original data.

Meanwhile, the tail ends of the curve — which contain the rare, unusual or surprising outcomes — fade away.

This is a telltale sign of model collapse: Rare data becomes even rarer.

If this process went unchecked, the curve would eventually become a spike:

This was when all of the digits became identical, and the model completely collapsed.

Why it matters

This doesn’t mean generative A.I. will grind to a halt anytime soon.

The companies that make these tools are aware of these problems, and they will notice if their A.I. systems start to deteriorate in quality.

But it may slow things down. As existing sources of data dry up or become contaminated with A.I. “ slop ,” researchers say it makes it harder for newcomers to compete.

A.I.-generated words and images are already beginning to flood social media and the wider web . They’re even hiding in some of the data sets used to train A.I., the Rice researchers found .

“The web is becoming increasingly a dangerous place to look for your data,” said Sina Alemohammad , a graduate student at Rice who studied how A.I. contamination affects image models.

Big players will be affected, too. Computer scientists at N.Y.U. found that when there is a lot of A.I.-generated content in the training data, it takes more computing power to train A.I. — which translates into more energy and more money.

“Models won’t scale anymore as they should be scaling,” said Julia Kempe , the N.Y.U. professor who led this work.

The leading A.I. models already cost tens to hundreds of millions of dollars to train, and they consume staggering amounts of energy , so this can be a sizable problem.

‘A hidden danger’

Finally, there’s another threat posed by even the early stages of collapse: an erosion of diversity.

And it’s an outcome that could become more likely as companies try to avoid the glitches and “ hallucinations ” that often occur with A.I. data.

This is easiest to see when the data matches a form of diversity that we can visually recognize — people’s faces:

A grid of A.I.-generated faces showing variations in their poses, expressions, ages and races.

A.I. images generated by Sina Alemohammad and others .

After one generation of training on A.I. output, the A.I.-generated faces appear more similar.

This set of A.I. faces was created by the same Rice researchers who produced the distorted faces above. This time, they tweaked the model to avoid visual glitches.

This is the output after they trained a new A.I. on the previous set of faces. At first glance, it may seem like the model changes worked: The glitches are gone.

After two generations …

After three generations …

After four generations, the faces all appeared to converge.

This drop in diversity is “a hidden danger,” Mr. Alemohammad said. “You might just ignore it and then you don’t understand it until it's too late.”

Just as with the digits, the changes are clearest when most of the data is A.I.-generated. With a more realistic mix of real and synthetic data, the decline would be more gradual.

But the problem is relevant to the real world, the researchers said, and will inevitably occur unless A.I. companies go out of their way to avoid their own output.

Related research shows that when A.I. language models are trained on their own words, their vocabulary shrinks and their sentences become less varied in their grammatical structure — a loss of “ linguistic diversity .”

And studies have found that this process can amplify biases in the data and is more likely to erase data pertaining to minorities .

Perhaps the biggest takeaway of this research is that high-quality, diverse data is valuable and hard for computers to emulate.

One solution, then, is for A.I. companies to pay for this data instead of scooping it up from the internet , ensuring both human origin and high quality.

OpenAI and Google have made deals with some publishers or websites to use their data to improve A.I. (The New York Times sued OpenAI and Microsoft last year, alleging copyright infringement. OpenAI and Microsoft say their use of the content is considered fair use under copyright law.)

Better ways to detect A.I. output would also help mitigate these problems.

Google and OpenAI are working on A.I. “ watermarking ” tools, which introduce hidden patterns that can be used to identify A.I.-generated images and text.

But watermarking text is challenging , researchers say, because these watermarks can’t always be reliably detected and can easily be subverted (they may not survive being translated into another language, for example).

A.I. slop is not the only reason that companies may need to be wary of synthetic data. Another problem is that there are only so many words on the internet.

Some experts estimate that the largest A.I. models have been trained on a few percent of the available pool of text on the internet. They project that these models may run out of public data to sustain their current pace of growth within a decade.

“These models are so enormous that the entire internet of images or conversations is somehow close to being not enough,” Professor Baraniuk said.

To meet their growing data needs, some companies are considering using today’s A.I. models to generate data to train tomorrow’s models . But researchers say this can lead to unintended consequences (such as the drop in quality or diversity that we saw above).

There are certain contexts where synthetic data can help A.I.s learn — for example, when output from a larger A.I. model is used to train a smaller one, or when the correct answer can be verified, like the solution to a math problem or the best strategies in games like chess or Go .

And new research suggests that when humans curate synthetic data (for example, by ranking A.I. answers and choosing the best one), it can alleviate some of the problems of collapse.

Companies are already spending a lot on curating data, Professor Kempe said, and she believes this will become even more important as they learn about the problems of synthetic data.

But for now, there’s no replacement for the real thing.

About the data

To produce the images of A.I.-generated digits, we followed a procedure outlined by researchers . We first trained a type of a neural network known as a variational autoencoder using a standard data set of 60,000 handwritten digits .

We then trained a new neural network using only the A.I.-generated digits produced by the previous neural network, and repeated this process in a loop 30 times.

To create the statistical distributions of A.I. output, we used each generation’s neural network to create 10,000 drawings of digits. We then used the first neural network (the one that was trained on the original handwritten digits) to encode these drawings as a set of numbers, known as a “ latent space ” encoding. This allowed us to quantitatively compare the output of different generations of neural networks. For simplicity, we used the average value of this latent space encoding to generate the statistical distributions shown in the article.

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IMAGES

FREE 10+ Research Work Plan Samples in MS Word
How to Write a Research Paper Outline With Examples?
Research Statement
FREE 26+ Research Plan Samples in PDF
Research Plan
42+ SAMPLE Research Work Plan in PDF

VIDEO

Types of Research with examples
What is Research
What topics are suitable for doing research? #researchtopics #researchtopic #Researchideas
Research Article Example: Deconstructing How To Write A Journal Article Through an Example
How to write a Literature Review (Related Work) section
Action Research In Education (Step by step guide )

COMMENTS

PDF A Sample Research Paper/Thesis/Dissertation on Aspects Of
Definition. A finite set of linear equations in the variables x1, x2, . . . , xn is called. a system of linear equations. Not all systems of linear equations has solutions. A system of equations that has no solution is said to be inconsistent. If there is at least one solution, it is called consistent.
Research Paper Example
If you are working on your research paper for the first time, here is a collection of examples that you will need to understand the paper's format and how its different parts are drafted. Continue reading the article to get free research paper examples. On This Page. 1. Research Paper Example for Different Formats.
Research Paper Examples
Research paper examples are of great value for students who want to complete their assignments timely and efficiently. If you are a student in the university, your first stop in the quest for research paper examples will be the campus library where you can get to view the research sample papers of lecturers and other professionals in diverse fields plus those of fellow students who preceded ...
Research Paper
Definition: Research Paper is a written document that presents the author's original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue. It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new ...
20+ Research Paper Example
Research Paper Example Outline. Before you plan on writing a well-researched paper, make a rough draft. An outline can be a great help when it comes to organizing vast amounts of research material for your paper. Here is an outline of a research paper example: I. Title Page. A. Title of the Research Paper.
10 Research Question Examples to Guide your Research Project
The first question asks for a ready-made solution, and is not focused or researchable. The second question is a clearer comparative question, but note that it may not be practically feasible. For a smaller research project or thesis, it could be narrowed down further to focus on the effectiveness of drunk driving laws in just one or two countries.
How To Write A Research Paper (FREE Template + Examples)
Step 1: Find a topic and review the literature. As we mentioned earlier, in a research paper, you, as the researcher, will try to answer a question.More specifically, that's called a research question, and it sets the direction of your entire paper. What's important to understand though is that you'll need to answer that research question with the help of high-quality sources - for ...
How to Write a Research Paper
Create a research paper outline. Write a first draft of the research paper. Write the introduction. Write a compelling body of text. Write the conclusion. The second draft. The revision process. Research paper checklist. Free lecture slides.
Research Paper Format
Here is an example of how a works cited entry for a book should look: Smith, John. The Art of Writing Research Papers. Penguin, 2021. MLA Research Paper Example. MLA Research Paper Format Example is as follows: Your Name. Your Professor's Name. Course Name and Number. Date (in Day Month Year format) Word Count (not including title page or ...
How to Write a Research Paper Outline (with Examples)
Think through the sequence in which you will present your topic and ideas. Structure the research paper outline in a way that allows a clear and continuous narrative that is easy to understand. For example, the introduction must be concise and engaging and must clearly introduce the research topic. The main paragraphs must focus on the research ...
17 Research Proposal Examples (2024)
Research Proposal Examples. Research proposals often extend anywhere between 2,000 and 15,000 words in length. The following snippets are samples designed to briefly demonstrate what might be discussed in each section. 1. Education Studies Research Proposals.
Free Research Paper Template (Word Doc & PDF)
Research Paper Template. The fastest (and smartest) way to craft a research paper that showcases your project and earns you marks. Available in Google Doc, Word & PDF format. 4.9 star rating, 5000+ downloads. Download Now (Instant access)
How to Write a Research Proposal
Research proposal examples. Writing a research proposal can be quite challenging, but a good starting point could be to look at some examples. We've included a few for you below. Example research proposal #1: "A Conceptual Framework for Scheduling Constraint Management".
Research Paper Example
A study of infant feeding practices was carried out on a sample of 100 mother and infant pairs. The results revealed that only 20% of mothers in the study currently exclusively breastfeed their babies. It also shows that socio-economic factors like mother's work status, marital status and educational attainment had direct bearing on these ...
Research Methodology Example (PDF + Template)
Research Methodology Example. Detailed Walkthrough + Free Methodology Chapter Template. If you're working on a dissertation or thesis and are looking for an example of a research methodology chapter, you've come to the right place. In this video, we walk you through a research methodology from a dissertation that earned full distinction ...
Examples of Student Research Projects
Research Proposals including Research Plans ; Coming Up With a Research Question; Getting Ethics Approval; Struggling with a Literature Review; Qualitative, Quantitative or Mixed-Methods ; Data Collection; Working with Primary Data ; Using the Internet for Research; Data Management; Writing Up Your Research ; Preparing for the Research Project
How To Write a Research Plan (With Template and Examples)
If you want to learn how to write your own plan for your research project, consider the following seven steps: 1. Define the project purpose. The first step to creating a research plan for your project is to define why and what you're researching. Regardless of whether you're working with a team or alone, understanding the project's purpose can ...
Key things to know about election polls in the U.S.
For example, recent high-quality polls by Gallup and The New York Times/Siena College adjusted on eight and 12 variables, respectively. Our own polls typically adjust on 12 variables. In a perfect world, it wouldn't be necessary to have that much intervention by the pollster. But the real world of survey research is not perfect.
Sociodemographic and work-related factors associated with psychological
Further research is needed to better characterise the sociodemographic and work-related factors impacting the psychological resilience of healthcare workers in South Africa. Additional research could focus on resilience specifically, consider a larger and more representative sample and include qualitative research methods.
What Is Augmented Reality (AR)?
As a research scientist focusing on augmented reality, you might work to discover new ways to approach AR technology and improve user experience. In this role, you may work to improve AR technology directly, or you may develop research specific to an industry like education or health care.
1000+ Research Topics & Research Title Examples For Students
A research topic and a research problem are two distinct concepts that are often confused. A research topic is a broader label that indicates the focus of the study, while a research problem is an issue or gap in knowledge within the broader field that needs to be addressed.. To illustrate this distinction, consider a student who has chosen "teenage pregnancy in the United Kingdom" as ...
Embracing diversity in nursing research: essential tips
Choosing culturally sensitive theoretical frameworks and methodologies. Whiteness has dominated nursing,1 and this also extends to nursing research where dominant western philosophies and methodologies are applied. Nurse researchers have not had many culturally and racially sensitive frameworks to choose from and so their research on, for example, race and culture has mainly used frameworks ...
What Is a Research Design
A research design is a strategy for answering your research question using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about: Your overall research objectives and approach. Whether you'll rely on primary research or secondary research. Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects. Your data collection methods.
Phys. Rev. Research 6, 033218 (2024)
2 H − NbS 2 is a classic example of an anisotropic multiband superconductor, with significant recent work focusing on the interesting responses seen when high magnetic fields are applied precisely parallel to the hexagonal niobium planes. It is often contrasted with its sister compound 2 H − NbSe 2 because they have similar onset temperatures for superconductivity, but 2 H − NbS 2 has no ...
Probiotics: Usefulness and Safety
Probiotics are live microorganisms that are intended to have health benefits when consumed or applied to the body. They can be found in yogurt and other fermented foods, dietary supplements, and beauty products. Cases of severe or fatal infections have been reported in premature infants who were given probiotics, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has warned health care providers ...
History Honors Program Information Session 2024>
Your work will be directed by leading members of UT's History faculty who specialize in their chosen research subject.Graduates of the History Honors Program have attended top graduate schools in America and abroad but are just as likely to find rewarding careers wherever great research skills are valued, including, for example, law, politics ...
Research Methods
Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design. When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make. First, decide how you will collect data. Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question:
A letter-will from Petronilla
This is a letter from "Epistolae: Medieval Women's Letters". Epistolae is a collection of medieval Latin letters to and from women. The letters collected date from the 4th to the 13th centuries, and they are presented in their original Latin as well as in English translation. Dr. Joan Ferrante, Professor Emerita of English and Comparative Literature of Columbia University, has, with her ...
When A.I.'s Output Is a Threat to A.I. Itself
And new research suggests that when humans curate synthetic data (for example, by ranking A.I. answers and choosing the best one), it can alleviate some of the problems of collapse.
Cisco Secure Firewall
With workers, data, and offices located across the country and around the world, your firewall must be ready for anything. Secure Firewall helps you plan, prioritize, close gaps, and recover from disaster—stronger.