song dynasty essay

Song Dynasty

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The Song (aka Sung) dynasty ruled China from 960 to 1279 CE with the reign split into two periods: the Northern Song (960-1125 CE) and Southern Song (1125-1279 CE). The Northern Song ruled a largely united China from their capital at Kaifeng, but when the northern part of the state was invaded by the Jin state in the first quarter of the 12th century CE, the Song moved their capital south to Hangzhou. Despite the relative modernisation of China and its great economic wealth during the period, the Song court was so plagued with political factions and conservatism that the state could not withstand the challenge of the Mongol invasion and collapsed in 1279 CE, replaced by the Yuan dynasty .

The chaos and political void caused by the collapse of the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) led to the break-up of China into five dynasties and ten kingdoms, but one warlord would, as had happened so often before, rise to the challenge and collect at least some of the various states back into a resemblance of a unified China. The Song dynasty was, thus, founded by the Later Zhou general Zhao Kuangyin (927-976 CE) who was endorsed as emperor by the army in 960 CE. His reign title would be Taizu ('Grand Progenitor'). Making sure no rival general ever became too powerful and gained the necessary support to take his throne, the emperor introduced a system of rotation for army leaders and swept away all opposition. Further, he ensured that the civil service henceforth enjoyed a higher status than the army by acting as their supervisory body.

Emperor Taizu of Song was succeeded by his younger brother, Emperor Taizong ('Grand Ancestor'), who reigned from 976 to 997 CE. The stability provided by the long reigns of the first two emperors (at least compared to the chaotic previous centuries) gave the Song dynasty the start it needed to become one of the most successful in China's history.

Consolidation & Government

Taizu may have conquered much of central China but neither he nor his successors could manage to conquer the Khitan Liao dynasty in the north, who still controlled the vital defensive area of the Great Wall of China . Indeed, so superior were the Khitan horsemen that they invaded Song China at will and Song emperors were compelled to pay their neighbours annual tribute in the form of silver and silk . They also recognised the Khitan ruler as an emperor in his own right. A similar situation arose with the Tangut Xia state to the north-west. Following a defeat in 1044 CE tribute was paid to them, too, so that the Song emperors could maintain a peaceful border and concentrate on consolidating their rule of central China and managing their 100 million subjects. The tribute payments were huge but less than the costs of a war or maintaining a constant military presence in the region. In addition, as trade thrived between these states, much of the value of the tribute, in any case, came back to China as payment for Chinese exports.

Although the Song were able to govern over a united China after a significant period of division, their reign was beset by the problems of a new political and intellectual climate which questioned imperial authority and sought to explain where it had gone wrong in the final years of the Tang dynasty. A symptom of this new thinking was the revival of the ideals of Confucianism , Neo-Confucianism as it came to be called, which emphasised the improvement of the self within a more rational metaphysical framework. This new approach to Confucianism, with its metaphysical add-on, now allowed for a reversal of the prominence the Tang had given to Buddhism , seen by many intellectuals as a non-Chinese religion .

The clashes of political and religious ideals at court frequently led to damaging factions and exiles but the real problem, of course, was never really addressed. That was the vast inequality in wealth which had plagued China for centuries. One attempt at reform was the New Policies of the chancellor Wang Anshi (1021-1086 CE) who wanted to ease the burden of the poorer elements of society. He forwarded such reforms as substituting disruptive labour service for a tax in kind, offering low-interest loans and making new land surveys which sought to more fairly assign tax obligations. The reforms were met with almost total opposition, though, by the local administrators whose interest was the status quo and their well-established network of friends and kickbacks. The practical reality was that while more people than ever had the opportunity to join the scholar-bureaucrat class which ran the Chinese state at national and local level, and even if the lower aristocracy significantly widened its base, the vast majority of the population during the Song dynasty remained, as ever, overworked and overtaxed farmers.

If Song politics was somewhat troublesome for the emperors, at least the economy was booming. Kaifeng, already a capital in earlier dynasties, was one of the great metropolises of the world under the Song. With a population of around one million, the city was benefiting from industrialisation and was well-supplied by nearby mines producing coal and iron. A major trade centre, Kaifeng was especially famous for its printing, paper, textile, and porcelain industries. Such goods were exported along the Silk Road and across the Indian Ocean, along with tea, silk, rice, and copper . Imports included horses, camels, sheep, cotton cloth, ivory, gems, and spices.

Farming, in general, became much more efficient, and farmers aimed at producing more than they required for their own needs. Cities became more densely populated, markets thrived, and rural farmers began to grow crops they knew would demand high prices such as sugar, oranges, cotton, silk, and tea. To transport all these goods by canals and sea to where they were in demand thousands of ships were built, and so another industry became a success story. Companies became larger and more sophisticated with different levels of management and ownership. Guilds, wholesalers, partnerships, and stock companies all developed as the Chinese economy began to slowly take on the appearance of something more akin to today's industrial model.

Arts & Science

China under the Song developed into a more modernised and industrialised nation thanks to innovations in machinery, agriculture , and manufacturing processes. Significant inventions or improvements on existing ideas included paddle-wheel ships, gunpowder, paper money, the fixed compass, the sternpost rudder, lock gates in canals, and the moveable-type printing press. Iron armour was mass-produced, and swords were made from high-quality steel made possible by water-powered bellows creating super-heated furnaces.

Literature boomed during the Song dynasty. Lie Jie wrote a famous treatise on architecture , his Yingzao fashi (1103 CE) and encyclopedias were written. Famous works of history were written such as Sima Guang's Zizhi tongjian ( Comprehensive Mirror for Aid to Government ) which, published in 1084 CE, covered Chinese history from 403 BCE to 959 CE. The period saw a great many works of poetry published. One of the most famous poets is Su Dongpo (1037-1101 CE) who wrote, as many of his contemporaries did, about love, loneliness, and sorrow. Women in the Song period may well have fared less well than their predecessors, and such practices as foot-binding , in particular, became more common, but one female poet of renown was Li Qingzhao who famously described her family's exile in 1127 CE and her sorrow at her husband's early death .

The visual arts in general flourished, fuelled by a rising demand from an ever-increasing wealthy middle class. Fine porcelain and theatre were all popular with the new urban elite. Landscape paintings aimed for greater realism, with one of the most famous being Travelling among Streams and Mountains, a 2x1 metre silk hanging by Fan Kuan (c. 990-1030 CE). Flower and wildlife painting, especially of birds, also became very popular with Song dynasty artists. Such was the development of an appreciation for art that many of the most celebrated artists had their works ingeniously copied, and these fakes, sometimes complete with the embossed seal of the famous artist, continue to fool antiquarians to this day.

Territorial Threats

By the early 12th century CE China's position as master of East Asia was coming under increasing threat from attacks in the north by the Liao and Xia states again. Even more dangerous were the Jurchen, tribes people in the north-eastern part of China. The ancestors of the Manchurians, they spoke the Tungusic language and had declared their own state, the Jin in 1115 CE. The Song took advantage of their territorial ambitions, and the two states joined forces to defeat the Liao. Unfortunately, despite achieving their goal, the Song were rather shown up for their own military weakness. Thus, in 1125 CE the Jin state attacked parts of northern China which even the great general Tong Guan (1054-1126 CE) could not stop. The emperor Huizong (r. 1100-1126 CE) was captured along with thousands of others and besides the loss of a huge swathe of territory, the Song were compelled to pay the Jurchen a massive ransom to avoid any more loss of life.

The defeat necessitated the Song court into relocating to the Yangtze Valley, and they eventually established a new capital in 1138 CE at Hangzhou (aka Linan) in Zhejiang province. This was the beginning of the Southern Song dynasty. The shrinking of the Song lands did nothing to dampen the booming economy as, fortunately, the great trading ports of the new capital, Quanzhou and Fuzhou were all in the south and continued to thrive as multinational cities where significant numbers of Muslim and Hindu immigrants took up permanent residence. The south was also much more fertile and continued to yield surpluses each harvest.

In 1127 CE the Song army made one of Huizong's surviving sons emperor, who then took the title Gaozong (r. 1127-1162 CE). After some half-hearted attempts, any plans to take back the lost lands from the Jin state were officially abandoned and a peace treaty signed in 1141 CE. Fortunately for the Song emperor, he still controlled the richest part of his former state and some 60% of the population. Hangzhou flourished. Famous for its scenic canals and gardens, it was a thriving commercial centre producing silk and ships and boasted a population of over one million. The military defeats also made the Song rulers and intellectuals rethink their strategy and make a better effort to help all levels of society. In the capital, the poor were given free handouts and medical aid, for example.

Mongol Invasion

Just when the Song had become accustomed to their new state following the tremendous upheaval caused by the Jurchen, an even greater menace appeared, and once again, it was from the north. The nomadic Mongol tribes had been assembled under the leadership of Genghis Khan (r. 1206-1227 CE), and they repeatedly attacked and plundered the Xia and Jin states in the first three decades of the 13th century CE. The Song thought they were next and so made ready their armies, largely funded by confiscated wealth from the landed aristocracy - a policy which did nothing for internal unity. There was to be a reprieve, though, for the Mongols were busy enough expanding their empire into western Asia.

It was not until 1268 CE that the Mongol leader Kublai Khan (r. 1260-1294 CE) set his sights on the lands south of the Yangtze River. First, the strategically important city of Xiangyang was besieged, and it fell in 1273 CE thanks to the Mongol's persistence and superior catapults. The invaders crossed the Yangtze in 1275 CE and proved unstoppable. With many Song generals defecting or surrendering their armies, a court beset by infighting between the child emperor's advisors, and the ruthless slaughter of the entire city of Changzhou, the end of the Song dynasty was definitely nigh. The empress dowager and her young son Emperor Gongzong (r. 1274-5 CE) surrendered and were taken prisoner to the northern city of Beijing. Some groups of loyalists fought on for three more years, installing two more young emperors in the process (Duanzong and Dibing) but the Mongols swept all before them, setting up the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368 CE) in China, and then moved on down to Vietnam. The Song state, rich enough but paying dearly for its lack of political unity, military investment, and weapons innovation, became part of the vast Mongol empire which now covered one fifth of the globe.

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Bibliography

• Dawson, R. The Chinese Experience. Phoenix Press - Orion, 2017.
• Dillon, M. China. Routledge, 1998.
• Ebrey, P.B. East Asia. Wadsworth Publishing, 2013.
• Morris Rossabi. A History of China. Wiley-Blackwell, 2017.

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Cartwright, M. (2017, September 26). Song Dynasty . World History Encyclopedia . Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/Song_Dynasty/

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Cartwright, Mark. " Song Dynasty ." World History Encyclopedia . Last modified September 26, 2017. https://www.worldhistory.org/Song_Dynasty/.

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Song dynasty

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Song dynasty , (960–1279), Chinese dynasty that ruled the country during one of its most brilliant cultural epochs. It is commonly divided into Bei (Northern) and Nan (Southern) Song periods, as the dynasty ruled only in South China after 1127.

The Bei Song was founded by Zhao Kuangyin, the military inspector general of the Hou (Later) Zhou dynasty (last of the Five Dynasties ), who usurped control of the empire in a coup. Thereafter, he used his mastery of diplomatic maneuvering to persuade powerful potential rivals to exchange their power for honours and sinecures, and he proceeded to become an admirable emperor (known as Taizu , his temple name). He set the nation on a course of sound administration by instituting a competent and pragmatic civil service; he followed Confucian principles, lived modestly, and took the country’s finest military units under his personal command. Before his death he had begun an expansion into the small Ten Kingdoms of southern China.

Taizu’s successors maintained an uneasy peace with the menacing Liao kingdom of the Khitan to the north. Over time, the quality of the bureaucracy deteriorated, and when the Juchen (Chinese: Nüzhen, or Ruzhen)—tribes from the North who overthrew the Liao—burst into the northern Song state, it was easy prey. The Juchen took over the North and established a dynasty with a Chinese name, the Jin . But they were unable to take those regions of Song territory south of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang).

In the South, the climate and the beautiful surroundings were the setting for the Nan Song dynasty established (1127) by the emperor Gaozong . He chose a capital he called Lin’an (present-day Hangzhou ) and set about maintaining defenses against the hostile North and restoring imperial authority in the hinterland. Gaozong was a conscious admirer and emulator of the highly successful approach of the Han dynasty to the management of civil service , and the empire’s bureaucrats long functioned well. In due course, however, the dynasty began to decline. But the eventual fall of the Song dynasty was neither sudden nor a collapse upon itself such as had ended several of its predecessors. The Mongols, under Genghis Khan , began their move on China with an assault on the Jin state in the North in 1211. After their eventual success in the North and several decades of uneasy coexistence with the Song, the Mongols—under Genghis Khan’s grandsons—advanced on the Song forces in 1250. The Song forces fought on until 1276, when their capital fell. The dynasty finally ended in 1279 with the destruction of the Song fleet near Guangzhou (Canton).

During the Song period, commerce developed to an unprecedented extent; trade guilds were organized, paper currency came into increasing use, and several cities with populations of more than 1,000,000 flourished along the principal waterways and the southeast coast. Widespread printing of the Confucian Classics and the use of movable type, beginning in the 11th century, brought literature and learning to the people. Flourishing private academies and state schools graduated increasing numbers of competitors for the civil service examinations. The administration developed a comprehensive welfare policy that made this one of the most humane periods in Chinese history. In the works of the 12th-century philosophers Zhu Xi and Lu Jiuyuan , Neo-Confucianism was systematized into a coherent doctrine.

The Song dynasty is particularly noted for the great artistic achievements that it encouraged and, in part, subsidized. The Bei Song dynasty at Bianjing had begun a renewal of Buddhism and of literature and the arts. The greatest poets and painters in the empire were in attendance at court. The last of the Northern Song emperors was himself perhaps the most noteworthy artist and art collector in the country. His capital at Kaifeng was a city of beauty, abounding in palaces, temples, and tall pagodas when, in 1126, the Juchen burned it. The architecture of the Song era was noted for its tall structures; the highest pagoda at Bianjing was 360 feet (110 metres). Song architects curved the eave line of roofs upward at the corners. Pagodas, six- or eight-sided and built of brick or wood, still survive from the period.

The sculpture of the Song period continued to emphasize representations of the Buddha, and in that genre there were no substantive improvements over the work of Song sculptors in succeeding dynasties . Landscape painting was one of the outstanding arts of the Bei Song, and its most noted figures were Fan Kuan and Li Cheng. In the Nan Song many great painters served at the Hanlin Academy , becoming noted for brush effects, miniatures, and, under Chan (Zen) influence, paintings of Buddhist deities, animals, and birds.

In the decorative arts the Song dynasty marked a high point in Chinese pottery . Song wares are noted for their simplicity of shape and the purity of colour and tone of their glazes. From the Bei Song came Ding, Ru, Zhun, Cizhou, northern celadon, and brown and black glazed wares; from the Nan Song came Jingdezhen whiteware, Jizhou wares , celadons, and the black pottery of Fujian . Pottery produced at the Guan kilns , near the Nan Song capital, was the finest of an enormous number of celadons of the dynasty.

The tendency of Song jade carvers to adopt old lines and techniques makes difficult the accurate dating of jades that may be from the Song, and it has been similarly difficult to place Song lacquerware.

In music the Bei Song adopted a two-stringed fiddle from the northern tribes, and music was widely used for ceremonies, sacrifices, and other court events. Music attracted considerable attention in the dynasty’s enormous works of literature: the official history of the dynasty devoted 17 of its 496 chapters to musical events, and an encyclopaedia that appeared in 1267 has 10 of 200 chapters on the subject of music. Music drama flourished throughout the Song, and distinctly different styles evolved in the North and the South. The literature of the Song dynasty emphasized a return to old-time simplicity of expression in prose, and short tales called guwen were written in great volume. A school of oral storytelling in the vernacular arose, and conventional poetry enjoyed wide cultivation. Song poets achieved their greatest distinction, however, in the new genre of the ci , sung poems of joy and despair. These poems became the literary hallmark of the dynasty. For the diversity and richness of its cultural achievements, the Song dynasty is remembered as one of China’s greatest.

Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Southern song dynasty (1127–1279).

Tea Bowl with “Hare’s-Fur” Glaze

Service with Decoration of Flowers and Birds

Poem of Farewell to Liu Man

• Yelü Chucai

Vase with Dragonfish Handles

Viewing plum blossoms by moonlight

Emperor Xuanzong's Flight to Shu

Unidentified artist Chinese, active mid-12th century

Quatrain on spring’s radiance

Empress Yang Meizi

Mountain Market, Clearing Mist

• Zhao Mengjian

Scholar viewing a waterfall

Poet strolling by a marshy bank

Department of Asian Art , The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2001

In 1125, when the Jurchen, a semi-nomadic people from northeast Asia, invaded Song China and captured the capital at Bianliang (modern Kaifeng), founding their own Jin dynasty in the north, the Song court reestablished itself in the south in Hangzhou, where it continued to rule for another 150 years as the Southern Song dynasty.

Southern Song society was characterized by the pursuit of a highly aestheticized way of life, and paintings of the period often focus on evanescent pleasures and the transience of beauty. Images evoke poetic ideas that appeal to the senses or capture the fleeting qualities of a moment in time. One particularly important source of inspiration for Southern Song artists was the natural beauty of Hangzhou and its environs, especially West Lake, a famed scenic spot ringed with lush mountains and dotted with palaces, private gardens, and Buddhist temples.

The Southern Song Imperial Painting Academy continued the stylistic direction and high technical standards established by Emperor Huizong in the early twelfth century. Often executed in the intimate oval fan or album-leaf format, academic paintings—and the imperially inscribed poems that sometimes accompany them—reveal an increasingly narrow, concentrated vision and a commitment to the exact rendering of an object. The cultivation of a tranquil and detached mind free of material entanglements was a common concern of Song Neo-Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi (1130–1200): the “investigation of things [leading to] the extension of knowledge.”

The decorative arts also reached the height of elegance and technical perfection during the Southern Song. Like painting , the plastic arts responded to two different aesthetics—that of the imperial court and that of popular culture. Supreme among the decorative arts of the Song period are ceramics, which many connoisseurs consider the highest artistic achievement of the Chinese potter.

Department of Asian Art. “Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279).” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ssong/hd_ssong.htm (October 2001)

Additional Essays by Department of Asian Art

• Department of Asian Art. “ Mauryan Empire (ca. 323–185 B.C.) .” (October 2000)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Zen Buddhism .” (October 2002)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Chinese Cloisonné .” (October 2004)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Chinese Gardens and Collectors’ Rocks .” (October 2004)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Landscape Painting in Chinese Art .” (October 2004)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Nature in Chinese Culture .” (October 2004)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Han Dynasty (206 B.C.–220 A.D.) .” (October 2000)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Kushan Empire (ca. Second Century B.C.–Third Century A.D.) .” (October 2000)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Qin Dynasty (221–206 B.C.) .” (October 2000)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Rinpa Painting Style .” (October 2003)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Jōmon Culture (ca. 10,500–ca. 300 B.C.) .” (October 2002)
• Department of Asian Art. “ The Kano School of Painting .” (October 2003)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Woodblock Prints in the Ukiyo-e Style .” (October 2003)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Traditional Chinese Painting in the Twentieth Century .” (October 2004)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) .” (October 2002)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127) .” (October 2001)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties (386–581) .” (October 2002)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Tang Dynasty (618–907) .” (October 2001)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Yayoi Culture (ca. 300 B.C.–300 A.D.) .” (October 2002)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) .” (October 2001)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Art of the Pleasure Quarters and the Ukiyo-e Style .” (October 2004)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Scholar-Officials of China .” (October 2004)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Kofun Period (ca. 300–710) .” (October 2002)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Shunga Dynasty (ca. Second–First Century B.C.) .” (October 2000)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Lacquerware of East Asia .” (October 2004)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Painting Formats in East Asian Art .” (October 2004)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Asuka and Nara Periods (538–794) .” (October 2002)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Heian Period (794–1185) .” (October 2002)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Kamakura and Nanbokucho Periods (1185–1392) .” (October 2002)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Momoyama Period (1573–1615) .” (October 2002)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Neolithic Period in China .” (October 2004)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Muromachi Period (1392–1573) .” (October 2002)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Samurai .” (October 2002)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Shinto .” (October 2002)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Seasonal Imagery in Japanese Art .” (October 2004)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Shang and Zhou Dynasties: The Bronze Age of China .” (October 2004)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Shōguns and Art .” (October 2004)
• Department of Asian Art. “ Art of the Edo Period (1615–1868) .” (October 2003)

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The art of the Song dynasty

The Song dynasty is known especially for the development of monumental landscape painting.

960–1279 C.E.

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Attributed to Muqi, Six Persimmons

Rendered simply in tones of ink, Six Persimmons is a treasure of Zen Buddhist painting.

Ding ware bowl, Northern Song dynasty

This porcelain bowl with reeds and geese for decoration has a metal rim where the bowl couldn't be glazed

Attributed to Zhang Zeduan, Along the River during Qingming Festival , handscroll

Along the River during Qingming Festival offers a rare glimpse of the thriving commercial activity of medieval China.

Emperor Huizong, Auspicious Cranes , handscroll

Emperor Huizong's Auspicious Cranes records natural phenomena that would be interpreted as a good omen for the dynasty.

Gu Kaizhi, Nymph of the Luo River

We can recognize from Gu Kaizhi's painting the emergence of Chinese landscape tradition.

Ceramic pillow

Ceramic pillows became a popular domestic item among middle- and upper-class families during the Song dynasty

Bowl with “oil spot” glaze

Jian ware tea bowls were highly prized in China but seem to have gone out of fashion there, whereas the Japanese adopted them for use in tea ceremonies.

Guan ware long-necked vase

Guan ware is probably one of the rarest and most admired types of Chinese ceramics in the present world.

Illustration to the Fumu enzhong jing , Dunhuang

The central section of the painting is made up of scenes illustrating the Fumu enzhong jing, an apocryphal sutra that was popular at Dunhuang in this later period.

Stencil for a five-figure Buddha group

This stencil (or pounce) is one of very few to survive, and is the largest and most impressive of those found at Mogao.

Overall, the Song dynasty was a time of stability and economic, cultural, and artistic prosperity.

Liang Kai (attributed), White Egret

A painting of a lonely white egret standing in shallow water, attributed to the famous painter Liang Kai

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After the dissolution of the central government's control of the Tang Empire, the tenth century CE in China was marked by increased political instability. Almost as soon as one military commander seized control, his rule would be undercut by infighting and coup d'etats. This pattern repeated frequently in the five northern and ten southern kingdoms into which the Tang empire had dissolved. In 960, when the general Zhao Kuangyin seized control of Bian (modern Kaifeng), he appeared to be just another warlord making a bid for power. Yet the manner in which Zhao, known to history by his reign name Emperor Taizu (ruled 960-976), managed to consolidate power demonstrated that he was a masterful politician and strategist as well as a brilliant military commander.

Taizu's rise to the throne was as much a public relations campaign as it was a military one. Influential allies helped mold public opinion, creating the impression that Taizu had been unwillingly thrust into the position of leadership, and that popular demand left him no option but to take the throne. Then, to preempt any further possible coups on the part of these same allies, Taizu offered them large prosperous estates, hereditary titles and generous pensions in exchange for their retirement from their respective martial offices. Taizu then replaced these career military men with civil servants, so that the ranks of commanders, generals and other high-ranking military positions were filled by bureaucrats totally inexperienced with military service. Furthermore, the holders of these posts were frequently rotated, so no single commander was given the opportunity to develop an independent power base from which to launch a revolt. Once his new cabinet was established, Taizu engaged in a reunification plan composed of a mixture of warfare and diplomacy, often winning over rivals with extremely generous rewards for defection, and thus avoiding battle altogether. Using this strategy, the reunification of China was complete by 978 with surprisingly little loss of life and destruction of property.

After Taizu's death in 976, his brother took the throne as Emperor Taizong. Taizong made it a high priority to win back territories in northern China now controlled by the Liao dynasty, founded by the once-nomadic Khitan . Taizong's failed campaign against the Khitan generated disastrous results, since the Khitan attacked in reprisal, coming within a few days march of the Song capital. After this demonstration of the limitations of their own military strength, the Song court came to rely a policy of appeasement, inaugurating a tribute system in which massive annual payments were offered to the Khitan, promised for perpetuity, in return for peace. The same policy would later be used to pacify the Jurchen (founders of the Jin dynasty, 1115-1234 CE), the Tanguts and Mongols . A healthy economy made such policies of appeasement practical, and the stable political environment that resulted initially led to even more thriving domestic and international trade, higher agricultural yields, and a number of impressive technological advances.

Yet for the most part, international trade bloomed and prospered during the Song period. Trade unions and professional guilds were formed, systems of banking were developed, and paper money was used throughout the empire. In terms of arts, the Song dynasty was a golden age of sorts for both painting and ceramics, and in many ways the creation of porcelain reached its apex (both technically and aesthetically) in the practice of Song-era ceramicists. Song ceramics were a voluble commodity throughout Asia, and improvements in ocean navigation (including the invention of a south-pointing compass) expanded their market to include Japan, Vietnam, Thailand and Indonesia. In fact, Song-era ceramic shards have been found as far away as the east coast of Africa, and though it is possible that these goods were transported by middle-men, this fact demonstrates the breadth of the international sea-trade networks in which Song tradesmen participated. Other Song-era technological developments include the use of steel in agricultural tools, chains for suspension bridges, drill bits for sinking wells, and steel arrow heads capable of penetrating conventional armor. Gunpowder was also regularly used in warfare, as well as in mining. 1

Yet at the same time, Song China relied less on overland trade from the Silk Road, and the resulting decrease in contact with Central and Western Asian countries (and through them, India and the Middle East). This is not to say they did not value the cultural and intellectual achievements of the lands to the west; for example, Emperor Taizu appointed an astronomer, Ma Yize (910?-1005), whose job was to observe and interpret the heavens using methods developed in the Islamic world (Ma Yize traced his ancestory to an area near modern northeastern Yemen) 2  . Direct exposure to nations and cultures to the west, however, was at a low-point during the Song period, a phenomenon which generated stronger feelings of geographical and cultural isolation from the rest of continental Asia. This may also have led to an increase in ethnocentrism, which may also explain the decline in interest in Buddhism (a foreign faith) as a state-sponsored religion, though it still flourished as a popular religion. In fact, it was during the Song period that a number of Buddhist deities were transformed on the popular level into more distinctly Chinese manifestations. The male bodhisattva Avalokitesvara turned into the distinctly matronly Guanyin, and Maitreya, the Buddha of the Future, became the hemp-garbed, laughing, large-bellied Milofo.

The Song court's policy of appeasement worked well for a while, yet it proved to be short-sighted one. It failed the Song on two occasions, each time with dramatic results. The first occasion was in 1127, when the Jurchen seized the northern capital and forced the Song court to relocate to south China. The second time was in 1279, when the Mongols, deciding they preferred to rule Song territory themselves rather than simply extort its riches, attacked the Song and absorbed southern China into their already immense empire.

- John D. Szostak

(1) From the website " The Song Dynasty in China ." (2) From Colloquium on Information Science : HKUST Library Series no. 6 - 6 June 2002

https://asia-archive.si.edu/object/F1909.369/

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• Song dynasty (960–1279)

Song dynasty, 960–1279

When the Tang (tahng) dynasty a series of rulers from a single family. (618–907) collapsed, a period of upheaval, rapid succession of dynasties, and multiple kingdoms followed. In the mid-tenth century, a general named Zhou (joe) Kuangyin reunified China, establishing the Song dynasty (960–1279) with himself as the first ruler, Emperor Taizu. The Song dynasty was divided into two periods: the Northern Song (960–1126), the physically larger empire, and the Southern Song (1127–1279). Overall, it was a time of stability and economic, cultural, and artistic prosperity the state of being wealthy or successful. .

Increased population, advanced agricultural techniques, and booming trade and commerce led to a thriving economy during both the Northern and Southern Song. The world’s first governmental paper money was issued in the 1120s. Despite the empire’s many successes, the state lacked the same degree of military strength that the previous Tang dynasty had enjoyed. Instead, the Song rulers took advantage of the empire’s economic strength and made large annual gifts to neighboring states to secure the peace that its armies could not. Despite the payoffs, a seminomadic people called the Jurchens eventually conquered the capital of Kaifeng (k-eye-fuhng) in 1126, bringing an end to the Northern Song. The Song court fled south and established a new capital in the city that is today known as Hangzhou (hahng-joe) , beginning what is called the Southern Song dynasty.

The Song government’s relative military weakness was disturbing to many Chinese intellectuals. They developed a defensive, inward-looking strategy and became less open to adopting foreign styles and ideas. Buddhism (bood-ihz-uhm) a widespread Asian religion or philosophy founded by Siddartha Gautama in northeastern India in the 5th century BCE. , for example, was to some degree rejected for its foreign origin, and the native philosophies of Confucianism a system of ethical and philosophical teaching associated with the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551–479 BCE). He developed a system of thought that stressed the importance of good government, social order, and harmonious and moral living. and Daoism (dow-ihz-uhm) a philosophy based on the ideas of the Chinese thinker Laozi, who taught that people should be guided by a universal force called the Dao (Way). experienced a strong resurgence. With the Confucian revival came a new interest in ancient culture, or antiquarianism. The Song dynasty is often called an age of protoarchaeology and a period when great collectors and connoisseurs people who have a great deal of knowledge about the fine arts, or are expert judges in matters of visual taste. of art flourished both in and outside the court. Pre-Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE) bronzes and jades began to be collected and were imitated and reproduced in creative new interpretations. Reverence for and reference to the past became increasingly important factors in Chinese art.

Ceramics made in the Song dynasty stand out as world masterpieces. Song ceramics were supremely accomplished in terms of technical expertise, creativity, and the aesthetic harmony between the shape and glaze a thin, glass-like coating made of powdered rocks, minerals, ashes, and water. Applied correctly it makes a clay body impervious after firing. The colors of glaze are determined by the mineral oxides used and various aspects of the firing conditions. of a vessel a container such as a cup, bowl, pot, or dish. . The Song court favored elegant ceramics with simple and refined forms and subtle gazes, reflecting the aesthetic values and introspective atmosphere of the time ( F1911.338 ). Alongside the simpler ceramics that suited court tastes, the popular market was extremely vibrant and productive in making ceramics with bold designs and multiple colors.

The Song court established an Imperial relating to an empire, an emperor, or the home of royals. Painting Academy in the palace. Painters from all over the country were recruited to serve the needs of the court. The varied traditions, under the auspices of the court, blended together into a distinctive Song academic style. It valued a naturalistic and descriptive representation of the physical world. Scholar officials chosen through the civil service examination also had a major impact on the arts. They developed a style that rejected the descriptive realism of the professional and court painters, valuing spontaneity and a type of brushwork that was informed by their study of calligraphy the art of producing decorative handwriting with a pen or a brush. . Many favored painting in ink alone without color. For the scholar (or amateur) artists, painting was a means of personal expression pursued for the enjoyment of the artist and for the sharing of ideas with his circle of friends.

• Lesson Plans

Technology and Tea Culture

Students will be able to identify, explain, and analyze the technique behind producing the tea bowl with “oil spot” glaze and relate this work to the cultural and historical context of tea culture in the Song dynasty as well as the Song’s Commercial Revolution.

• AP World History
• High School
• Technology and Production
• Daily Life and Folkways

Self-cultivation and Enlightenment: Cultural Activities of the Ancient Chinese Literati

https://asia-archive.si.edu/object/F1915.100/

Students will be able to define the Chinese literati social class and its characteristics by analyzing a qin , a Chinese zither. Students will reflect on the profound influence the qin and other cultural traditions have left on our modern life and how we can inherit and reinvent our traditions.

• Chinese Language Arts
• Visual Arts
• Middle School/Junior High
• Musical instrument

• Historical Conquest Team

Lesson Plans from Ancient China: The Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD)

The Song Dynasty, spanning from 960 to 1279 AD, stands as one of the most remarkable periods in Chinese history, renowned for its remarkable advancements in various fields. Divided into the Northern Song and Southern Song periods, it witnessed pivotal developments that shaped not only Chinese civilization but also had a profound impact on the global stage. Let's delve into the major events of this era, why they are crucial to understand, and their lasting significance.

Founding of the Song Dynasty (960 AD) : Following the collapse of the Tang Dynasty and a period of political turmoil known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, Zhao Kuangyin, also known as Emperor Taizu, established the Song Dynasty. He reunified China under one rule and set the stage for a new era of stability and prosperity.

Advancements in Technology : The Song Dynasty was a crucible of technological innovation. It saw the invention of movable type printing by Bi Sheng, a breakthrough that revolutionized the dissemination of knowledge and paved the way for the proliferation of literature and scholarship. Another groundbreaking invention of the Song era was gunpowder, initially used for fireworks but later harnessed for military purposes, changing th e nature of warfare forever.

Commercial Expansion and Urbanization : Economic prosperity flourished during the Song Dynasty, fueled by vibrant trade networks both domestically and internationally. The Grand Canal, begun in the Sui Dynasty and expanded during the Tang, facilitated transportation and trade between the north and south, leading to increased agricultural productivity and urban growth. The era witnessed the rise of bustling urban centers such as Kaifeng and Hangzhou, which became vibrant hubs of commer ce, culture, and intellectual exchange.

Cultural Renaissance : The Song Dynasty was characterized by a flourishing of arts and literature. Poetry, painting, calligraphy, and ceramics reached new heights of sophistication and refinement. Artists like Su Dongpo and Mi Fu left an indelible mark on Chinese culture with their masterful works. Neo-Confucianism emerged as the dominant intellectual force, blending Confucian principles with Buddhist and Daoist thought. Scholars like Zhu Xi propagated neo-Confucian ideas, shaping the moral and philosophical landscape of China for centuries to come.

Why is it important to learn about the Song Dynasty and events like it?

Studying the Song Dynasty offers invaluable insights into the dynamics of political, economic, and cultural evolution in China and beyond. Here are some reasons why it is essential:

Technological Innovation : The Song Dynasty was a crucible of invention, fostering advancements that continue to impact our lives today. Understanding the origins of technologies such as printing and gunpowder provides context for their global significance.

Economic Development : The commercial expansion and urbanization of the Song Dynasty offer lessons in the dynamics of trade, urban growth, and economic interdependence. These lessons are pertinent in understanding modern globalization and economic development strategies.

Cultural Legacy : The artistic and intellectual achievements of the Song Dynasty reflect the richness and diversity of Chinese culture. Exploring Song literature, art, and philosophy deepens our appreciation for the enduring contributions of Chinese civilization to world culture.

Political Dynamics : The rise and fall of dynasties like the Song offer valuable lessons in governance, statecraft, and the complexities of power. Analyzing the political structures and challenges of the Song Dynasty sheds light on issues of governance that remain relevant today.

In conclusion, the Song Dynasty stands as a testament to the ingenuity, resilience, and creativity of the Chinese people. By studying its major events and legacies, we gain not only a deeper understanding of Chinese history but also insights into the broader currents of human civilization and the enduring quest for progress and enlightenment.

Global Events During this Period

During the Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD), while China experienced remarkable advancements in various fields, significant events were unfolding around the world that shaped the course of history. Let's explore some of these events, their dates, and their global significance:

Byzantine Empire (963 AD) : In 963 AD, Nikephoros II Phokas seized the Byzantine throne, marking the beginning of his reign as emperor. His military campaigns and administrative reforms aimed to restore Byzantine power and stability in the face of external threa ts and internal challenges.

Crusades (1095–1291 AD) : The First Crusade was launched in 1095 AD by Pope Urban II, aiming to recapture the Holy Land from Muslim control. Over the following centuries, multiple Crusades were waged, with varying degrees of success, leading to significant interactions between Europe, the Middl e East, and North Africa.

Norman Conquest of England (1066 AD) : In 1066 AD, William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, invaded England and defeated King Harold II at the Battle of Hastings. This event marked the beginning of Norman rule in England and had profound cultural, linguistic, and politic al consequences for the British Isles.

Mongol Empire (1206–1368 AD) : In 1206 AD, Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes and established the Mongol Empire. Over the following decades, the Mongols expanded their dominion through conquest, eventually becoming the largest contiguous empire in history and exerting influence across Asia , Europe, and the Middle East.

European Renaissance (14th–17th centuries AD) : While the Renaissance period began later than the Song Dynasty, its seeds were sown during this time. The revival of classical learning, art, and literature in Europe laid the groundwork for the intellectual a nd cultural transformations of the Renaissance.

Islamic Golden Age (8th–14th centuries AD) : The Islamic world experienced a flourishing of scholarship, science, and culture during the Song Dynasty. Muslim scholars made significant contributions to mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy, influencing intel lectual developments across Europe and Asia.

Crusader States in the Levant (12th–13th centuries AD) : During the Song Dynasty, Crusader states were established in the Levant, including the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the County of Tripoli, and the Principality of Antioch. These states played a crucial role in the geopolitics of the Eastern Mediterranean and facilitated cultural exchange between East and West.

Understanding the global context of the Song Dynasty provides insight into the interconnectedness of civilizations and the exchange of ideas, technologies, and goods across regions. While China was experiencing its own golden age of innovation and prosperity, the world around it was undergoing dynamic changes that would shape the course of history for centuries to come.

Important People During this Period

During the Song Dynasty, several influential figures emerged whose contributions shaped the course of Chinese history. Let's explore some of the most important people of this period:

Emperor Taizu (927–976 AD) : Born Zhao Kuangyin, Emperor Taizu was the founder of the Song Dynasty and ruled as its first emperor from 960 to 976 AD. He played a pivotal role in unifying China after the turmoil of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Taizu's military campaigns and administrative reforms laid the foundation for the stability and pro sperity of the Song Dynasty.

Emperor Huizong (1082–1135 AD) : Emperor Huizong was a patron of the arts and a prolific artist and calligrapher himself. His reign (1100–1126 AD) witnessed significant cultural flourishing, with advancements in painting, ceramics, and poetry. However, Huizong's focus on artistic pursuits weakened the empire's military and financial strength, contributing to the eventual downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty.

Wang Anshi (1021–1086 AD) : Wang Anshi was a prominent statesman, reformer, and chancellor during the Northern Song Dynasty. He implemented a series of radical reforms known as the New Policies, aimed at addressing socio-economic inequality and strengthening the state's capacity. Wang's reforms included measures to increase agricultural productivity, regulate markets, and promote education. While controversial and ultimately unsuccessful, his policies left a lasting impact on Chinese governance and socio-economic thought.

Su Shi (1037–1101 AD) : Su Shi, also known as Su Dongpo, was a renowned poet, writer, and statesman of the Northern Song Dynasty. His literary works, including poetry, essays, and calligraphy, are considered among the finest in Chinese literature. Su Shi's poetry reflected the Confucian ideals of moral integrity, social responsibility, and appreciation for nature, making him a revered figure in Ch inese literary history.

Li Qingzhao (1084–1151 AD) : Li Qingzhao was one of the most prominent female poets of the Song Dynasty. Known for her lyric poetry and ci (a type of lyric poetry), Li Qingzhao's works expressed themes of love, longing, and the transient nature of life. Despite facing personal tragedies and political turmoil, she continued to produce exquisite poetry, earning her a lasting legacy as on e of China's greatest poets.

Studying the lives and contributions of these individuals offers valuable insights into the political, cultural, and intellectual landscape of the Song Dynasty. Their achievements not only advanced Chinese civilization but also influenced subsequent generations of scholars, artists, and leaders. By researching their history, we gain a deeper understanding of the challenges and opportunities faced by society during this pivotal period of Chinese history.

Archeological Findings about this Period

The Song Dynasty, spanning from 960 to 1279 AD, witnessed remarkable advancements in various fields, leaving behind a wealth of archaeological evidence that sheds light on this transformative period in Chinese history. Let's explore some of the key archaeological findings that illuminate the achievements and innovations of the Song Dynasty:

1.    Movable Type Printing : One of the most significant contributions of the Song Dynasty to human civilization was the invention of movable type printing. Archaeological excavations have unearthed movable type printing blocks made of clay, wood, and metal, providing tangible evidence of this groundbreaking technology. The movable type printing method revolutionized the dissemination of knowledge, enabling the mass production of books, government documents, and literary works.

2.    Gunpowder : The invention of gunpowder during the Song Dynasty transformed warfare and had far-reaching implications for military technology and global history. Archaeological discoveries have revealed the existence of early gunpowder weapons such as handheld bombs, fire arrows, and primitive cannons. Excavated artifacts, including gunpowder residues and weapon components, offer compelling evidence of the Song Dynasty's pioneering role in the development of gunpowder-based weaponry.

3.    Porcelain Production : The Song Dynasty was renowned for its exquisite porcelain craftsmanship, characterized by delicate forms, intricate designs, and vibrant glazes. Archaeological excavations at kiln sites across China have uncovered a vast array of Song Dynasty porcelain artifacts, including bowls, vases, and figurines. These archaeological findings provide valuable insights into the techniques, materials, and aesthetics of Song Dynasty porcelain production, reflecting the era's cultural sophistication and artistic achievements.

4.    Urban Planning and Architecture : Archaeological investigations of Song Dynasty cities and urban centers have revealed advanced urban planning principles, sophisticated infrastructure, and monumental architecture. Excavated city walls, gates, streets, and drainage systems attest to the meticulous planning and engineering prowess of Song Dynasty urban planners and architects. These archaeological discoveries offer a glimpse into the urban life, social organization, and technological ingenuity of the period.

5.    Literary and Scholarly Artifacts : Archaeological excavations have yielded a treasure trove of literary and scholarly artifacts from the Song Dynasty, including manuscripts, calligraphy works, and printing blocks. These artifacts provide valuable insights into the intellectual vibrancy, literary creativity, and scholarly pursuits of the era. By studying these archaeological remains, historians can reconstruct the intellectual landscape of the Song Dynasty and gain a deeper understanding of its cultural achievements.

Overall, archaeological evidence plays a crucial role in unraveling the complexities of the Song Dynasty and illuminating its contributions to human civilization. From technological innovations to cultural achievements, these archaeological findings offer a tangible connection to the past, allowing us to appreciate the rich heritage and enduring legacy of the Song Dynasty.

Life Lessons to Learn While Studying this Period

Studying the Song Dynasty, which flourished from 960 to 1279 AD, offers invaluable insights into not just the historical events of the time, but also the life lessons and thought processes that continue to resonate with us today. This transformative period in Chinese history, marked by remarkable advancements in technology, commerce, and scholarship, provides a wealth of wisdom and inspiration that transcends the boundaries of time. Let's explore some of the key life lessons and thought processes that can be gleaned from the study of the Song Dynasty:

1.    Innovation and Adaptability : One of the defining characteristics of the Song Dynasty was its spirit of innovation and adaptability. Despite facing numerous challenges, including political instability and external threats, the Song rulers and intellectuals demonstrated a remarkable ability to innovate and adapt to changing circumstances. The development of movable type printing and gunpowder during this period exemplifies the Song Dynasty's commitment to innovation and its willingness to embrace new ideas and technologies.

2.    Persistence and Resilience : The Song Dynasty endured its fair share of setbacks and obstacles, including invasions, rebellions, and internal strife. However, despite these challenges, the Song rulers and their subjects exhibited a remarkable sense of persistence and resilience. The rebuilding of the empire after the fall of the Northern Song and the resurgence of cultural and economic prosperity during the Southern Song period underscore the importance of perseverance in the face of adversity.

3.    Cultural and Intellectual Flourishing : The Song Dynasty was a golden age of cultural and intellectual flourishing, characterized by vibrant artistic expression, scholarly pursuits, and philosophical inquiry. The rise of neo-Confucianism as the dominant intellectual and moral philosophy of the era reflected the Song scholars' quest for ethical guidance and moral rectitude in a rapidly changing world. The enduring legacy of Song Dynasty literature, poetry, and philosophy serves as a testament to the enduring power of human creativity and intellect.

4.    Entrepreneurship and Commerce : The Song Dynasty witnessed unprecedented economic growth and prosperity, fueled by thriving trade networks, commercial activities, and urbanization. The emergence of bustling marketplaces, flourishing industries, and vibrant merchant communities exemplified the entrepreneurial spirit of the Song era. The Song Dynasty's emphasis on commerce and trade underscores the importance of economic development and innovation in driving societal progress and prosperity.

5.    Cultural Exchange and Diversity : The Song Dynasty was characterized by its cosmopolitan culture and openness to foreign influences, exemplified by the flourishing of international trade along the Silk Road and maritime routes. The exchange of ideas, goods, and technologies between China and neighboring regions enriched the cultural landscape of the Song Dynasty and contributed to its dynamism and diversity. The Song era's embrace of cultural exchange underscores the value of diversity and cross-cultural dialogue in fostering mutual understanding and cooperation.

In conclusion, studying the Song Dynasty offers not only a window into the past but also a treasure trove of life lessons and thought processes that are highly relevant in today's rapidly changing world. From innovation and adaptability to persistence and resilience, the wisdom of the Song Dynasty continues to inspire and guide us in navigating the complexities of life and society.

Here are some vocabulary words related to the Song Dynasty that students may find helpful:

Dynasty : A sequence of rulers from the same family or group.

Empire : A group of states or territories controlled by one ruler or government.

Advancements : Improvements or developments in technology, knowledge, or society.

Commerce : The activity of buying and selling goods and services, especially on a large scale.

Scholarship : The academic study or achievement; learning at a high level.

Movable Type Printing : A printing method where individual letters or characters can be rearranged and reused.

Gunpowder : A mixture of saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal used in ancient times for guns, explosives, and fireworks.

Neo-Confucianism : A philosophical movement that emerged during the Song Dynasty, blending Confucianism with elements of Taoism and Buddhism.

Territorial : Relating to territory, land, or geographical area.

Cosmopolitan : Familiar with and at ease in many different countries and cultures.

Urbanization : The process of making an area more urban by developing infrastructure and increasing population density.

Diversity : The state of being diverse; variety or differences within a group or society.

Prosperity : The state of being successful or thriving, especially in financial terms.

Resilience : The ability to recover quickly from difficulties or setbacks.

Adversity : Difficulties or hardships; a state of misfortune or distress.

These vocabulary words can help students better understand the historical context and significance of the Song Dynasty and its achievements.

Activities for your Students

Here are a few engaging activities that teachers or parents can use to help students learn about the Song Dynasty:

1.    Interactive Timeline : Recommended for ages 10 and up.

Create an interactive timeline of the Song Dynasty using posters or digital tools. Include important events, inventions, and key figures from both the Northern and Southern Song periods. Students can work individually or in groups to research and add information to the timeline. This activity helps students visualize the sequence of events and understand the chronological context of the Song Dynasty.

2.    Invention Showcase : Recommended for ages 12 and up.

Organize an invention showcase where students research and present on significant inventions and advancements from the Song Dynasty, such as movable type printing, gunpowder, compass, and paper money. Encourage students to create visual aids or models to demonstrate how these inventions worked and their impact on society. This activity promotes research skills and critical thinking while highlighting the technological innovations of the period.

3.    Calligraphy Workshop : Recommended for ages 8 and up.

 Introduce students to the art of Chinese calligraphy, which flourished during the Song Dynasty. Provide materials such as brushes, ink, and rice paper, and teach students basic calligraphy strokes and techniques. Students can practice writing Chinese characters and create their own calligraphy artwork. This activity not only teaches students about the importance of calligraphy in Chinese culture but also fosters creativity and appreciation for traditional arts.

4.    Trade Simulation Game : Recommended for ages 10 and up.Divide students into groups and assign each group a role, such as merchants, artisans, or government officials. Create a simulated trading environment where students engage in buying, selling, and negotiating goods that were traded during the Song Dynasty, such as silk, tea, porcelain, and spices. Students must navigate economic challenges and make strategic decisions to maximize profits and resources. This activity enhances students' understanding of Song Dynasty commerce and economics while developing teamwork and decision-making skills.

5.    Neo-Confucianism Debate : Recommended for ages 14 and up.Organize a classroom debate on the principles and influence of Neo-Confucianism during the Song Dynasty. Divide students into teams representing different viewpoints on Neo-Confucian philosophy and its impact on society. Encourage students to research primary sources and scholarly interpretations to support their arguments. Facilitate a structured debate where students present their arguments, respond to counterarguments, and engage in critical analysis. This activity promotes critical thinking, research skills, and understanding of philosophical concepts.

These activities provide hands-on and interactive ways for students to explore the key aspects of the Song Dynasty, including its technological innovations, cultural achievements, economic dynamics, and philosophical developments. Adjust the complexity and scope of the activities based on the age and proficiency level of the students.

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The Making of Song Dynasty History: Sources and Narratives, 960-1279 CE By Charles Hartman. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2021. xv, 377 pp. ISBN: 9781108834834 (cloth

2022, The Journal of Asian Studies

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The field of medieval studies is marked by the strained complexity of its disciplinary variety. Within literary studies, at least, this variety, which could well be called fragmentation, might be explained by the different rates at which its sub-fields have evolved and grown over the last four decades.

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In recent decades, several studies have been conducted on the social and intellectual changes affecting the Chinese elite between the second half of the Tang Dynasty (618-906) and the Song (960-1279). China scholars have come to consider the period following the An Lushan rebellion of 755 as the beginning of a crisis of aristocratic culture and the declining influence of the aristocratic elite over the bureaucratic service and governance of the Empire. This process was accompanied by the gradual rise of a new elite, whose claims to power were based no longer on birthright, but on the possession of culture and the upholding of Confucian values. Starting from the consideration that the writing of shi poetry was a characteristic elite activity, this article explores how the changes in the social and intellectual makeup of the elite during the transition period affected poetic writing and contributed to the development of Northern Song poetry. With the founding of the Song Dynasty, the new elite was given unprecedented authority by the polity of the founding emperors, in order to counterbalance the power of the military ranks from which the dynasty's founder had emerged. This polity contributed significantly to the development of the new elite, mainly through the reinstatement and enlargement of the exam system for the selection of officials. Between the second half of the Tang and the foundation of the Song, the elite found a new sense of identity based on the rediscovery of ru learning and on a shared system of cultural and ethical values. Especially influential would be the guwen ideology (culminating in the reform movements of the 11th century) and a form of activism geared towards the actualization of the ethical principles embodied in the Confucian textual tradition.

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In the 10th century, the nomadic Khitan, with their Liao dynasty, became the most dominant power in East Asia, posing enormous threats to the Chinese Song dynasty in the south. Based on an analysis of the traditional Chinese world view, this paper examines the two opposing views of the Song Chinese about their Khitan neighbours in the north. The Song Chinese acknowledged the military prowess of the Khitan and thus advocated flexible diplomatic policies based on realistic observation and careful assessment, demonstrated by the diplomatic parity set by the Treaty of Chanyuan in 1005. In the meantime, many held firm belief in their cultural superiority over the " barbarians " , which derived from the tradition of a cultural sino-centrism. The Song looked for Confucian sources to justify their concession by turning their attention to the cultivation of virtue and were confident that they were the centre of culture and civilisation.

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The Song Dynasty: Technology, Commerce, and Prosperity

This complete module with links to all materials may be downloaded as a PDF here.

Ooltewah Middle School

Ooltewah, Tennessee

Song dynasty founder, Emperor Taizu. Source:  Wikipedia  at  https://tinyurl.com/y8fl8gvo.

This module was developed and utilized for a seventh-grade world history and geography class. It is designed to teach the Tennessee state social studies standard 7.03 — "Summarize agricultural, commercial, and technological developments during the Song dynasties, and describe the role of Confucianism during the Song.” However, the module is suitable for a variety of social studies classes (grades sixth through ninth) that include Chinese history.

Estimated module length : Approximately three fifty-five-minute classes

The reorganization of China under the Song dynasty (960–1279 CE) set the stage for economic growth that propelled Song China into becoming the richest country in the world during the early part of the eleventh century. Despite the fact that the dynasty lost northern China to non-Chinese invaders, prosperity continued during the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279 CE). Technological advancements were significant and helped change China and the world. Just a few of these advancements included improvements in agriculture, development of moveable type, uses for gunpowder, invention of a mechanical clock, superior shipbuilding, the use of paper money, compass navigation, and porcelain production. Technological advancements, domestic and international trade, and effective government influenced and advanced Chinese society, resulting in a population explosion during the Song dynasty.

This module is designed to be implemented during the teaching of an imperial China or East Asia unit.

Students will:

Develop contextual understanding of the Song dynasty through contrasting the Song with the Tang, another earlier great earlier dynasty.

Demonstrate an understanding of the influences of Song dynasty technologies, commerce, and trade on Chinese and world history in the tenth through thirteenth centuries.

Investigate individual technological innovations during the Song dynasty.

Design and present multimedia presentations describing the influence and importance of technologies created during the Song dynasty.

Interpret and explain the cumulative effects and influences Song dynasty advancements made on China and the world we live in today.

Prerequisite knowledge

Before beginning this module, students should be able to locate China on a map and know the two major rivers (the Yellow River in northern China and the Yangtze in the south), along with the location of the Grand Canal. They should be able to define the following terms: emperor, dynasty, technology, and commerce. Because Confucius’s ideas were particularly important in Song government, an understanding of some of Confucius’s ideas would be helpful, but are not required.

Module introduction

Lesson strategies

Introduction: Song dynasty technologies

Emperor Taizu (Zhao Kuangyin) was a military general who conquered numerous Chinese territories, in effect reunifying China. This resulted in ending the unstable Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods, bringing about the Song dynasty. The Song dynasty’s land area was significantly smaller than the previous Tang dynasty due to outside influences, such as the Manchurians and Liao. The Song military was weak compared to other dynasties, thus their focus became securing areas of central China. Leaders decided to establish Kaifeng as their capital rather than Chang’an. This decision was a reflection of the dynasty’s circumstances and goals. The Grand Canal made Kaifeng and later Hangzhou as northern, and later southern, Song capitals the perfect match for these goals. The Song’s focus was building wealth and social solidarity. Whereas Buddhism was a religious focus during the Tang and early Song dynasties, a resurgence of Confucian ideas in the form of neo-Confucianism occurred during the Song dynasty.

The first reading in this module reviews the power and influence the Tang dynasty had during its existence. Students are asked to make connections with the Tang dynasty’s legacy and the Song dynasty’s goals. The warmup reading may be given as a homework assignment prior to Class No. 1.

Tang dynasty China. Source:  University of Washington  at  https://tinyurl.com/y722wefj.

Class No. 1

Students should read or should have already read as a homework assignment  the following short reading . This reading (also below), based upon  a longer article by University of Wisconsin Professor Craig Lockard , has been abridged and modified for middle school students.

Tang civilization and the Chinese centuries

Recently, a few nations have been nicknamed superpowers because the countries’ governments, militaries, and economic powers affect not just the lives of people who live in the superpower, but many people in other parts of the world. Often, artists, authors, and performers in superpowers also touch the lives of many people throughout the world. Today, the U.S. is a superpower, and China is considered a rising superpower. Even though the nickname is new, powerful empires early in world history could have been named superpowers. China was the world’s leading superpower well over 1,000 years ago. Although there were periods of time where civil war weakened China, from approximately 600 to 1500 CE, China was the largest, strongest, and most populated country in Europe or Asia. China's success during the Tang dynasty (618–907) was particularly impressive. In fact, many historians regard the Tang as the most famous time in China's long history. The years of the Tang dynasty contained China’s greatest successes and helped create a pattern that China would continue throughout the Song and Ming dynasties, and into early modern times. During the Tang period, several cultures, especially Korea and Japan, learned from the more advanced Tang dynasty. During Tang rule, China had its greatest influence on eastern Asia and carried out active trade with cultures of Europe and Asia. For more than 100 years, the Tang Empire stretched deep into Central Asia, and many parts of Chinese culture spread to Korea and Japan. Buddhism grew, linking China to an increasing religious community. Tang China was open and welcoming to people and ideas from many cultures.

Teachers might also want to use this  BBC  website selection with students who find the level of the first short reading too difficult or who want to learn more about the Tang dynasty:  http://china.mrdonn.org/tang.html .

After students read the modified article introduction, pose the question: How did the Tang dynasty set the stage for advancements made during the Song dynasties? (estimated time, ten minutes)

Next, show students the following six minute, twenty second long  NTD -produced video, “ Discovering China: The Song Dynasty . ” Make sure your students understand the following vocabulary and historical terms that appear in the video: prosperity, commercial, Jin dynasty, agricultural, influential.

While students view the video, tell them to list any technological advancements made during the dynasty and discussed in the video. After viewing the video, list the discussed advancements on the board. (estimated time, ten minutes)

A map of Song dynasty China, showing the approximate borders of the Northern Song in 1100 and indicating the area lost to the non-Han Jin dynasty in 1127. Source:  Washington University's " A Visual Sourcebook of Chinese Civilization "  project.

This activity will lead the class discussion into the next step of introducing the research media project that is the capstone activity of the module. Students will be responsible for researching and making multimedia presentations on significant Song dynasty technological and commercial innovations:

Pass out  project parameters and rubric worksheets . Discuss and explain project instructions and expectations. Answer student questions and then assign or allow random choosing of project topics. It might be beneficial to have students work in pairs. (estimated time, fifteen minutes)

At this point, students should review and begin research on their project topics. The remainder of the class time should be used for research. Student pairs should divide up jobs needed to complete the project. For example, one student might conduct topic research while the other student reviews websites for usable photos and maps. Please refer to the  topic research links  to find possible websites for information on topics. These are suggested resource links, but research should not be limited to only these suggested sites. A minimum of two resources should be used in student research and must be noted in the slide presentation at the end. (estimated time, thirty minutes)

Suggested research topics

Government printing of paper money

Agriculture improvements and advancements

Gunpowder uses

International land and maritime trade

Moveable type printing

Civil service exam use

Compass use for ship navigation

Mechanical clock

Porcelain production

Architectural advancements

Technical considerations for students

The individual student’s knowledge and experience using the slide presentation program plays a large role in the student’s ability to create a proper slide presentation. It also influences the amount of time needed for completion of the activity. Because of the technical nature of the assignment, it might be a good idea to review and discuss proper use of the chosen slide program. It also helps to show a slide example so students can mentally formulate an idea of what is expected. In the field test, a Google Classroom page was set up for students to add to their Google accounts. It was a very efficient way for students to receive the assignment information and forms. It was also a very efficient way for students to turn in their slide presentations, and for the teacher to view and grade the assignments.

If computers are not available, the project can be modified to a nontechnical method such as a poster display presentation rather than a computer slide presentation.

Jiaozi , the world's first paper-printed currency, a Song innovation. Source:  Wikipedia  at  https://tinyurl.com/ycsyqzsa .

Class No. 2

Begin the second day of research and slide creation by reviewing the main objectives of the project. Discuss expectations and any questions or concerns students may have at this point in the research and slide preparation. Give students the option to use a  graphic organizer  to prep research information into slides on a written format. Sometimes, it helps to transfer research information prior to typing and preparing the slides for presentation. (estimated time, five minutes)

All of Class No. 2 should be utilized by students for continued research and project preparation. Slide projects should be completed by the end of Class No. 2. Student groups that finish their projects early should be encouraged to review and proof their presentations. If time allows, they may begin practicing their group presentations. If needed, students may continue work at home if they have access to the internet. (estimated time, fifty minutes)

Class No. 3

Project presentation day: Student pairs should present their projects to the class. Presentations should be limited to around five minutes each. As students present their projects, other class members should take notes on each topic.

Extension activity

Students will take notes during their classmates’ presentations and from their notes will prepare an expository written response to the following prompt: In what way did the technological advancements made during the Song dynasty influence today’s society?

Culminating activity

Estimated time: twenty minutes

Introduce the following quote from the PowerPoint slide through language similar to this:

Technological developments can make some people poorer. For example, many blacksmiths lost their jobs when automobiles became widely available, and many travel agencies reduced their staffs or went out of business when computers made it cheaper for individuals to book their own airplane flights. However, thus far in world history, most people in societies that rapidly improve technology are much wealthier than societies where this does not happen.

Then, have the entire class read the following quotation from Philip D. Curtin, a historian on the Song dynasty:

“A Period of Unprecedented Growth”

Between ... 960 and ... 1127, China passed through a phase of economic growth that was unprecedented in earlier Chinese history, perhaps in world history up to this time. It depended on a combination of commercialization, urbanization, and industrialization that has led some authorities to compare this period in Chinese history with the development of early modern Europe six centuries later.

Have students explain the meaning of commercialization, urbanization, and industrialization.

Then, ask for a volunteer or volunteers to use part of the last sentence to identify and explain in their own words the evidence in this short quotation that supports the argument that Song China was the richest society in the world.

References and resources

http://ccnmtl.columbia.edu/services/dropoff/china_civ_temp/week06/pdfs/tangci.pdf : Craig Lockard, professor of history at the University of Wisconsin, provides this article, titled “Tang Civilization and the Chinese Centuries.” Teachers are encouraged to read this longer version of the first handout.

https://chinatxt.sitehost.iu.edu/EAsia-survey/Song-overview.pdf : This is a link to a research paper written by R. Eno from Indiana University’s East Asian Languages and Cultures Department, titled “Song Dynasty Culture: Political Crisis and the Great Turn.”

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QO7NHZJ-eE4 : “Discovering China—The Song Dynasty” is a six-minute, twenty-second-long video by New Tang Dynasty (NTD) TV on  YouTube . Students view this video during Class No. 1 of the module to introduce and summarize the Song dynasty and some of the dynasty’s technological advancements. 

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ancient/song-dynasty.html : The  Public Broadcasting Service  (PBS) website section on the Song dynasty is an excellent site for researching all aspects of the dynasty. It is an excellent site for students to use while researching Song technologies.

http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/songdynasty-module/index.html : This site is the best overall resource for students and teachers, as it covers all aspects of the Song dynasty.

http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/songdynasty-module/cities-new.html : This is a GIF that shows maps of both the Northern and Southern Song dynasties, along with the grand canal and major cities. It is an excellent visual comparison.

Source of Class No. 3 “A Period of Unprecedented Growth” quote:  Cross-Cultural Trade in World History  (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 109, as quoted in David Northrup, “Globalization and the Great Convergence: Rethinking World History in the Long Term,”  Journal of World History  16, no. 3 (2005): 258.

Asia Program

• 307 Hunter Hall
• Dept 2222
• 615 McCallie Ave
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•   423-425-5441

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