research relevant meaning

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6-Evaluating Sources

2. Evaluating for Relevancy

Relevant sources are those that pertain to your research question. You’ll be able to identify them fairly quickly by reading or skimming particular parts of sources and maybe jotting down little tables that help you keep track. We’ll show you how below, including where to look in specific kinds of sources and what questions to ask yourself as you do.

One thing to consider early on as you make inferences about relevancy is the effect that timeliness– called a source’s currency–should have on deciding whether a source is relevant. Sometimes timeliness has a lot to do with relevancy; sometimes it is less important. Your research question and your discipline will determine that.

For instance, if your research question is about the life sciences, you probably should consider only the most recent sources relevant for citing because the life sciences are changing so quickly. There is a good chance that anything but the most recent sources may be out of date. So it’s a good idea to aim for life sciences sources no more than 5 years old. (An example of a discipline that calls for even newer sources is computer security.)

Sometimes emergencies change the schedule of what is recent enough. For instance, when the Covid-19 pandemic started, it was incredibility important for scientists to share their research information as quickly as possible. At that time, scientific information about Covid-19 could become outdated in weeks or months–before the peer review process was barely started.

Lives were at stake and for that reason, scientists started publishing their new research results on Covid-19 as preprints —publications of results that had not yet been peer-reviewed–in an attempt to have them be useful faster. Nonetheless, after preprint publication, the peer review process continued for much of that research.

But pre-prints didn’t start with the Covid pandemic. Around for more than 30 years and now at Cornell University, arXiv is a free distribution service and an open-access archive for more than two million scholarly articles first published as preprints in the fields of physics, mathematics, computer science, quantitative biology, quantitative finance, statistics, electrical engineering and systems science, and economics. Materials on the site are not peer-reviewed by arXiv itself. (arXiv is pronounced archive.)

Before using preprints as sources, talk with your professor about whether she or he recommends their use in your situation.

Many sciences other than life sciences primarily use newer content under 10 years old. But not always. That’s because the history department is not alone in valuing older content. For instance, mathematics is a discipline that makes heavy use of older content. So how important the currency of your sources is will depend on your research question and your discipline. Your professor can guide you about your own situation.

In most cases, it’s best not to use a hard and fast rule about how current your sources have to be. Instead, consider your discipline and research question and do some critical thinking. For example, suppose your research question is about the Edo Period in Japan (1603-1868) or about Robert Falcon Scott, who explored the Antarctic from 1901-1913. In these cases, an item from 1918 might be just as useful as an item from 2018 (although new information may have been found in the 100-year gap). But something from 1899 about Antarctica or from 1597 about Japan would not be current enough for these research questions.

These examples also give you two more clues about how to treat the timeliness or currency of sources as you consider relevance:

• Because of how long ago they lived or occurred, it would be unusual for many sources on Robert Scott or the Edo Period to have been published very recently. So, unlike sources for the life sciences, whether a source is very recent should probably not determine its relevancy to research questions about Scott or the Edo Period.
• Primary sources might be considered especially relevant to many humanities and other non-science research questions. For disciplines in the humanities, the phrase primary sources refers to sources created at the same time as something under study—in this case, things such as Scott’s diaries and expedition photographs, as well as paintings, literature, clothing, and household items from the Edo Period. They go a long way to explain faraway people and times. (See Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Sources .) On the other hand, when science disciplines use the phrase primary source, they usually mean where they primarily find the information they consider valid—in research journals.

EXAMPLE: TED Currency

Check out how currency is handled on TED . This site provides videos of speakers talking about new ideas in technology, entertainment, and design. (That’s what TED stands for.) Some videos are labeled “Newest Talks,” and TED tells when every video was recorded. That’s because currency matters with TED Talks.

For your own sources for which timeliness matters, see the section below called Where to Look, which includes where to look in websites, articles, and books for information about a source’s currency.

Time-Saving Tips

Instead of thinking you have to read all of every source in order to figure out whether it’s relevant, read or skim only parts of each source. If you’re looking at the right parts, that should give you enough information to make an educated guess about relevancy and currency.

But what should you be looking for as you do that reading and skimming? One way to figure that out is to first parse your research question so that you can figure out its main concepts . (This is like identifying main concepts in your research question in order to search precisely, as we advise in Chapter 4.)

For instance, suppose your research question is: How does having diverse members in a group increase the critical thinking of the group?

What are this question’s main concepts? Our answer is: group diversity and critical thinking.

So when trying to judge which sources are relevant to these main concepts, you would assess whether each source you’ve found pertains to at least one of these main concepts. We recommend you jot down a little table like the one in the example below to keep track of which sources address each main concept.

To be considered relevant to your research question, a source wouldn’t necessarily have to cover all of your main concepts. But finding sources that do is ideal. Otherwise, you just have to make do with what you’ve got. Don’t forget that each source would have to pass the currency test, too, if the currency is important to your research question. So it saves time to record your decisions about the sources’ currency on your tables, too.

EXAMPLE: Sources’ Main Concepts and Currency

Research question: How does having diverse members in a group increase the critical thinking of the group?

The table in this hypothetical example indicates that both Sources A and C are relevant because each pertains to at least one main concept from the research question. Currency doesn’t seem to matter much to our research question, so all three sources were marked current. But since currency is all that Source B has to offer, it is not relevant for this project.

If you do make little tables for relevance, it’s probably a good idea to hang on to them. You might find them helpful later in your research process.

Where to Look in Websites, Articles, and Books

The information below tells where to look and what questions to ask yourself to assess the relevancy of articles, books, and websites. The name of a source seldom tells you enough about its relevance, so whatever you do, don’t stop evaluating after looking only at a website’s name or the title of another source.

Save time by looking in particular places in sources for information that will help you figure out whether the source is relevant to your research project. Much of our advice below comes from “Speedy Reading” in The Craft of Research , second edition, by Wayne Booth, Gregory Colomb, and Joseph Williams, University of Chicago Press, 2003, pp. 108-109.

On a website , check the name of the website and its articles for clues that they contain material relevant to your research question. Consider whether time should have an impact on what information can be considered relevant to your research question. If so:

• Skim any dates, datelines, What’s New pages, and press releases to see whether any website content works with the time considerations you need.
• Check for page creation or revision dates that you find. What you’ve already learned from other sources can also help. For instance, you may know that the information covered by a particular website, which seems relevant, is no longer considered the latest thinking. In that case, you could mark it irrelevant on your little table.
• Skim any site map and index on the website for key words related to your research question.
• Try the key words of your research question in the search box. Do you see enough content about your keywords to make you think parts of the website could be helpful?

For a research journal article, magazine article, or newspaper article , think about the title. Does it have something to do with your research question? Consider whether time should have an impact on what sources can be considered relevant. If so:

• Is the publication date of any of these three kinds of articles within your parameters?
• Skim the abstract of a journal article to see whether the article works with the time considerations you need. For instance, if there is a time period in your research question, does the article address the same time period or was it created during that time period?
• Look at the abstract and section headings in a journal article or the early parts of a newspaper or magazine article to locate the problem or question that the article addresses, its solution, and the outline of the article’s argument for its main claim. Can those help answer your research question? Do they make it seem as if the article will give you information about what others have written about your research question? Do they offer a description of the situation surrounding your research question?
• Do the journal article’s introduction and conclusion sections help you answer your research question and/or offer a description of the situation surrounding your question so you can explain in your final product why the question is important?
• Check whether the journal article’s bibliography contains keywords related to your research question. Do the sources cited by the bibliography pertain to your research question? (Bibliographies are especially good places to look for sources.)
• If you decide the newspaper or magazine article is relevant, look at sources quoted or otherwise identified within it. Those may be additional sources for you.

For a book (perhaps in its library catalog listing) , check whether the title and/or subtitle indicates the book could be about your research question. You can find a lot of such information about the book from its listing in a library catalog. Consider whether time should have an impact on what sources can be considered relevant.

• Is the publication date or copyright date (usually listed in the library catalog or on the back of the book’s title page) too early or late for any time constraints in your research question? Maybe it’s just right.
• Skim some of the preface and introduction to see whether the book works with the time considerations you need.
• Check the bibliography to see whether the sources cited are about your research question.
• Skim the book’s table of contents and any summary chapters to locate the problem or question that the book addresses, its solution, and the broad outline of the book’s argument for its main claim. Will any of that be helpful in answering your research question?
• Do those sections give you information about what others have written about your research question?
• Do they offer a description of the situation surrounding your research question?
• Look for your key words in the bibliography. Do the sources cited pertain to your research question?
• Skim the index for topics with the most page references. Do the topics with the most page references pertain to your research question?

ACTIVITY: Follow a Title’s Clues for Relevance

Instructions: This quiz asks you to use logic, the titles of sources, and their publication dates, to identify the source most likely to be relevant to each research question. (Outside of this quiz, sources are not actually in competition with one another to be relevant. But this seemed like a good way to have you practice your skills at assessing relevance.) Many titles and dates below are fictitious, but that doesn’t affect their relevance within the quiz. Book, journal, website, and newspaper titles are italicized; chapter and article titles are in quotes.

• For each, read the information about the research question and each source.
• For each, record your judgments on a little table that you jot down like those illustrated earlier.
• For each, mark your answer, which should be the most relevant source according to the little table you completed for the question.
• Check your answers with our feedback.

ACTIVITY: Connecting the Dots Beyond the Title

Instructions: You always need to go beyond the title of a source when judging relevance. In the previous activity, you evaluated the titles of sources for currency and relevance. For this activity, you will investigate beyond the title to see whether one of the (hypothetical) articles named in the last activity is indeed relevant to meeting your information needs.

• Read the abstract of the article below, using your critical thinking skills to try to identify the information needs of your project it could help you meet.
• Then answer the questions about which information needs the source can help you meet. (Mark all that apply.)
• If there is at least one need it can help meet, you should judge the article relevant. Don’t forget to compare your answers with our feedback.

Your research question is: How does “prospect theory” in behavioral economics help explain medical doctors’ decisions to favor surgery or radiation to cure cancer in patients?

As usual, your information needs are:

• To learn more background information.
• To answer your research question.
• To convince your audience that your answer is correct or, at least, the most reasonable answer.
• To describe the situation surrounding your research question for your audience and explain why it’s important,
• To report what others have said about your question, including any different answers to your research question.

Abstract: “Cancer Treatment Prescription–Advancing Prospect Theory beyond Economics,” in Journal of The American Medical Association Oncology , June, 2022. (This article and abstract are fictitious but the journal and its form for abstracts are real.) Importance Cancer treatment is complex. We expect oncologists to make treatment decisions according to definitive standards of care. Finding out that prospect theory demonstrates that they react very much like most other people when deciding to recommend surgery or chemotherapy for their patients indicates that more self-reflection on oncologists’ part could help patients make better decisions. (Prospect theory describes how people choose between alternatives that have risk when the probability of different outcomes is unknown.) Objective To show whether prospect theory applies to how oncologists framed their recommendations for surgery or chemotherapy for patients in good condition and bad condition. Design, Settings, and Participants Records of 100 U.S. oncologists were examined for the years 2019 and 2020, which documented patient conditions and the way oncologists framed their recommendations regarding surgery or chemotherapy. Records of nine thousand patients were involved. Thus, a quasiexperimental ex post facto design was used for the study. Main Outcomes and Measures This study explored the relationship between the way in which the oncologists “framed” the choice of surgery or chemotherapy as they made recommendations to patients, the patients’ conditions, and the choice actually made. Those results were compared to what prospect theory would predict for this situation. Results Physicians seemed to present their recommendation of surgery or chemotherapy in a loss frame (e.g., “This is likely to happen to you if you don’t have this procedure”) when patients’ conditions were poor and in a gain frame (e.g., “By having this procedure, you can probably dramatically cut your chances of reoccurrence”) when their conditions were less poor. These results are what prospect theory would have predicted. Conclusions and Relevance This study opens up the possibility that, as described by prospect theory, a person’s choice of framing behavior is not limited to how we naturally act for ourselves but includes how we act for other people, as the oncologists were acting on behalf of their patients. More research is necessary to confirm this line of evidence and determine whether oncologists’ decision making and framing is the most effective and entirely according to the best standards of care.

Which information needs could this source help you meet if your research question was: How does “prospect theory” in behavioral economics help explain medical doctors’ decisions to favor surgery or radiation to cure cancer in patients?

A brief summary of what a journal article is about and a quick read in order to decide whether the article is likely to contain information relevant to your research project. The abstract may appear in research databases and, sometimes, in the article itself.

Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research Copyright © 2015 by Teaching & Learning, Ohio State University Libraries is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Definition of relevant

relevant , germane , material , pertinent , apposite , applicable , apropos mean relating to or bearing upon the matter in hand.

relevant implies a traceable, significant, logical connection.

germane may additionally imply a fitness for or appropriateness to the situation or occasion.

material implies so close a relationship that it cannot be dispensed with without serious alteration of the case.

pertinent stresses a clear and decisive relevance.

apposite suggests a felicitous relevance.

applicable suggests the fitness of bringing a general rule or principle to bear upon a particular case.

apropos suggests being both relevant and opportune.

Examples of relevant in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'relevant.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

Medieval Latin relevant-, relevans , from Latin, present participle of relevare to raise up — more at relieve

circa 1540, in the meaning defined at sense 1a

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Understanding relevance of health research: considerations in the context of research impact assessment

Mark j. dobrow.

1 Institute of Health Policy, Management and Evaluation, Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, 155 College Street, 4th Floor, Toronto, ON M5T 3M6 Canada

Fiona A. Miller

2 Alberta Innovates - Health Solutions, Edmonton, Alberta Canada

Adalsteinn D. Brown

Associated data.

Not applicable. No datasets were generated or analysed during the development of the article.

With massive investment in health-related research, above and beyond investments in the management and delivery of healthcare and public health services, there has been increasing focus on the impact of health research to explore and explain the consequences of these investments and inform strategic planning. Relevance is reflected by increased attention to the usability and impact of health research, with research funders increasingly engaging in relevance assessment as an input to decision processes. Yet, it is unclear whether relevance is a synonym for or predictor of impact, a necessary condition or stage in achieving it, or a distinct aim of the research enterprise. The main aim of this paper is to improve our understanding of research relevance, with specific objectives to (1) unpack research relevance from both theoretical and practical perspectives, and (2) outline key considerations for its assessment.

Our approach involved the scholarly strategy of review and reflection. We prepared a draft paper based on an exploratory review of literature from various fields, and gained from detailed and insightful analysis and critique at a roundtable discussion with a group of key health research stakeholders. We also solicited review and feedback from a small sample of expert reviewers.

Conclusions

Research relevance seems increasingly important in justifying research investments and guiding strategic research planning. However, consideration of relevance has been largely tacit in the health research community, often depending on unexplained interpretations of value, fit and potential for impact. While research relevance seems a necessary condition for impact – a process or component of efforts to make rigorous research usable – ultimately, relevance stands apart from research impact. Careful and explicit consideration of research relevance is vital to gauge the overall value and impact of a wide range of individual and collective research efforts and investments. To improve understanding, this paper outlines four key considerations, including how research relevance assessments (1) orientate to, capture and compare research versus non-research sources, (2) consider both instrumental versus non-instrumental uses of research, (3) accommodate dynamic temporal-shifting perspectives on research, and (4) align with an intersubjective understanding of relevance.

Various levels of government in Canada collectively invest multiple billions of dollars in health-related research per annum, above and beyond investments in the management and delivery of healthcare and public health services. In recognition of this sizeable collective commitment, much work has focused on the impact of health research to explore and explain the consequences of these investments and inform strategic planning. Relevance is tacit in the increased attention to the usability and impact of health research. Additionally, research funders increasingly engage in relevance assessment as an input to decision processes; yet, it is unclear whether relevance is a synonym for or predictor of impact, a necessary condition or stage in achieving it, or a distinct aim of the research enterprise. Therefore, the main aim of this paper is to improve our understanding of research relevance as it relates to research quality and research impact, with specific objectives to (1) unpack research relevance from both theoretical and practical perspectives, and (2) outline key considerations for the assessment of research relevance.

Globally, there has been increasing critical assessment of the value of health research investments [ 1 – 3 ], with growing interest in research impact assessment (RIA) in the health sector [ 4 – 6 ]. RIA focuses on understanding how research activity can directly and indirectly advance knowledge, influence decision-making, and effect health and socio-economic outcomes, with a small but growing body of work seeking to develop better measures to evaluate (and ideally attribute) the returns on health research investments [ 6 ]. The Canadian Academy of Health Sciences (CAHS) released a comprehensive report on the subject in 2009 that presented a call for action, with a number of recommendations including establishing collaborative efforts among Canadian research funders to advance frameworks and sets of indicators and metrics for health research impact [ 4 ]. The CAHS impact framework [ 4 ], which drew on the Buxton and Hanney [ 7 ] ‘payback model’, among others, has provided a thoughtful starting point for considering the impact of health research in Canada. Subsequent work by Alberta Innovates – Health Solutions (AIHS) on a Research to Impact Framework (described in Graham et al. [ 8 ]) provides further insights on operationalising RIA frameworks for health research in Canada.

These initiatives are part of a broadly discussed shift in approaches to knowledge production, from an emphasis on investigator-initiated, curiosity driven work judged and guided by scientists, to expanded approaches to knowledge production, drawing on a wider set of actors and approaches, and emphasising relevance and usability. This shift from science produced by and for scientists to knowledge production that is “ socially distributed, application-oriented, trans-disciplinary, and subject to multiple accountabilities ” [ 9 ] has been characterised as a shift from ‘mode 1’ to ‘mode 2’ knowledge regimes. In the language of mode 2, interest in research ‘impact’ expresses a concern for application or consequence, and – in the economic language of return on investment – a concern that the yield is at least equal to the investment in the research itself. Extending this reasoning, interest in research ‘relevance’ may reflect a concern for accountability – linking research to the actor(s) for whom the research is performed and who will, ideally, put it to use.

In Canada, interest in research impact and relevance appears to have been felt most forcefully in the context of health services and policy research, which has long been encouraged to orient to the needs of policymakers, health system planners and related decision makers. More recently, there has been increased attention to ensuring that all forms of health research are ‘patient oriented’ – that is, that the research is prioritised, conducted and applied in ways that are accountable to this important end user. This call has been picked up on several fronts, including by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR), which released its Strategy for Patient-Oriented Research (SPOR) in 2011. The SPOR vision “…is to demonstrably improve health outcomes and enhance patients’ health care experience through integration of evidence at all levels in the health care system ” [ 10 ]. In some respects, it represents a fundamental re-orientation for the primary funder of health research in Canada.

Though relevance is tacit in attention to research impact and the wider concern with mode 2 knowledge production, explicit attention to the meaning or measurement of research relevance is limited. The CAHS and AIHS frameworks, for example, acknowledge ‘relevance’ of health research but do not clearly define the term nor describe approaches for assessing it [ 4 , 8 ]. Rather, these frameworks emphasise the role of broad stakeholder engagement approaches and feedback mechanisms as methods for addressing relevance. For example, the AIHS framework notes the challenge of, and need to, move “ …beyond the collection of traditional scientific indicators […] to include measures of greater interest to the broader stakeholder community… ” [ 8 ] without stating explicitly how “ greater interest ” or related concepts such as relevance should be judged. As currently constructed, these RIA frameworks provide important advances in how we think about the impact of health research, but they were not intended to provide guidance specifically to the assessment of the relevance of health research.

Despite this lack of specific guidance on research relevance from a scholarly or measurement perspective, attention to it as a practical component of health research funding and organisation is evolving. There is, for example, growing use of ‘relevance assessment’ by research funders. The Canadian Health Services Research Foundation, in particular, was an innovator in incorporating relevance review into its applied research funding programmes, including promoting partnerships and knowledge translation (KT) with health system stakeholders [ 11 ]. Current applications for funding from the Institute of Gender and Health at CIHR go through ‘relevance review’ ( http://www.cihr-irsc.gc.ca/e/45212.html ). Similarly, applications for Ontario’s Health System Research Fund are judged based on ‘internal review of relevance and impact’ ( http://www.health.gov.on.ca/en/pro/ministry/research/cihr.aspx ). However, given the lack of conceptual clarity on research relevance, and in particular, how relevance assessment aligns with and differs from impact assessment, there is a critical gap in our understanding that has implications for both its contemporary and ongoing application and our ability to make sound research investment decisions.

This work was commissioned by the Ontario SPOR SUPPORT (Support for People and Patient-Oriented Research and Trials) Unit (OSSU) – one of several units established at provincial and regional levels across Canada to work with CIHR in pursuing the SPOR. Like other research organisations, OSSU saw the need to consider the relevance of the research it supported, and it established both scientific and relevance advisory committees as part of its original governance structure [ 12 ], tasking the latter to “ …develop a measure, or small set of strategic measures, that serves to inspire the Ontario research, implementation, provider and patient communities to come together to make a difference for patients ” [ 12 ]. In the spirit of research and scholarship, OSSU then asked what exactly this commitment to research ‘relevance’ entailed.

Our approach to answering this question involved the scholarly strategy of review and reflection. As with the early investigations into research impact assessment, we were surprised to find so little reflexive attention to the topic within the health research community [ 13 ]. We prepared a draft paper based on an exploratory review of literature from various fields, and gained from detailed and insightful analysis and critique at a roundtable discussion with a small group of key health research stakeholders. We also solicited review and feedback from a small sample of expert reviewers.

The structure of our paper is as follows. First, to ‘unpack’ the concept of relevance, we review theoretical literature and then consider practical work both from within and outside the health sector, to ask what has been argued and concluded about the nature of relevance and its appropriate assessment. Next, we outline a series of forward-looking considerations for assessing research relevance and conclude with reflections on how research relevance assessment fits with evolving interest in RIA.

Unpacking relevance

Theoretical perspectives.

Before considering the relevance of health research, we need to step back and consider what we mean by the term ‘relevance’. A range of descriptors is often used to define relevance, including ‘pertinent to…’, ‘bearing upon…’, ‘connected with…’, or ‘appropriate to…’, ‘…the matter at hand’, as well as ‘germane’, ‘apropos’, ‘material’, ‘applicable’ and ‘satisfactory’. A large body of dedicated theoretical work on relevance, drawn from many fields and perspectives, such as computer science, information science, statistics/probability theory, artificial intelligence, cognitive science, epistemology, linguistics and jurisprudence [ 14 ], reflects its importance but also the challenge for establishing a common understanding of the term [ 14 , 15 ]. For example, Gärdenfors [ 16 ], in his discussion on the logic of relevance, noted that “ …relevance ought to be a central concept in the philosophy of science… ” given the position that “ …it is only relevant information that is of any importance… ” (p. 351). However, from a ‘research’ relevance perspective, the theoretical work on relevance has been linked to ‘information’, ‘evidence’, ‘reasoning’, ‘argument’ and ‘decision’ [ 15 – 18 ], each presenting variable framing that impedes practical definition or consistent comprehension of the term. Floridi [ 14 ] recently suggested that existing theories are “ …utterly useless when it comes to establish the actual relevance of some specific piece of information ” (p. 69), and goes on to advance a ‘subjectivist’ interpretation, with relevance judged by the questioner. While a subjectivist approach to relevance is intuitively appealing, its contribution to the assessment of research relevance presents particular challenges that we will discuss later in the paper.

Another approach to unpacking relevance is to consider the theoretical model behind the broad-based research strategies that have governed research investments and policies in high-income countries since the end of the Second World War. For the better part of the 20th century, a linear model was the dominant conceptual framework, whereby basic research was viewed as a necessary input for applied research, which then led to development and production [ 19 , 20 ]. In the late 1990s, an alternate thesis was introduced when Stokes proposed a new model for broad-based research strategy – known as Pasteur’s Quadrant – that highlighted the conceptual relationship between the ‘quest to understand’ and ‘practical needs’ [ 21 ]. While some research is clearly focused on advances in basic research (e.g. Niels Bohr’s foundational research on atomic structure and quantum theory), and some research is clearly focused on applied problems (e.g. Thomas Edison’s practical inventions), Stokes emphasised the potential for use-inspired basic research (e.g. Louis Pasteur’s foundational research on microbiology that addressed contemporaneous population health challenges). Pasteur’s Quadrant invokes consideration of ‘relevance’ with some commentators framing the two-by-two relationship as the relevance for advancement of basic knowledge and the relevance for immediate application [ 22 ]. Stokes’ model adds conceptual insight on the role of relevance when considering the value of research to society, however, it was not intended to specifically conceptualise the term and does not distinguish it from other related concepts such as research impact or value. Therefore, to provide further insights, we next consider relevance in practical settings.

Health sector perspectives

In the health sector, the idea that research should be ‘relevant’ is commonplace. Commitments to ‘knowledge translation’ and the ‘knowledge to action cycle’ [ 23 ] emphasise issues of relevance and provide considerable insight into approaches to ensuring research usability and use. At the same time, the health research community has given disproportionate attention to issues of research quality, with an emphasis on internal validity that may downplay external validity and suggest some tension between rigour and relevance. Thus, though the concept of relevance is of central importance to the health research enterprise, the failure to unpack it or explore it both theoretically and practically leaves room for misunderstanding and misapplication.

In the health sector, research relevance often arises as a practical question of the ‘fit’ between a body of knowledge or research approach and a specific field or issue (e.g. public health, primary healthcare, healthcare access, genomics, alternative healthcare, healthcare reform in rural areas). The results of two recent International Society for Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research task forces take this approach. The task forces developed questionnaires to assess the relevance and credibility of research other than randomised controlled trials (e.g. observational research, meta-network analysis) to inform healthcare decision-making [ 24 , 25 ]. Both make similar observations about relevance, reinforcing the subjectivist approach noted earlier, and can be summarised by the following statement by Berger et al. [ 24 ]:

“ Relevance addresses whether the results of the study/apply [sic] to the setting of interest to the decision maker. It addresses issues of external validity similar to the population, interventions, comparators, outcomes, and setting framework from evidence based medicine. There is no correct answer for relevance. Relevance is determined by each decision maker, and the relevance assessment determined by one decision maker will not necessarily apply to other decision makers. Individual studies may be designed with the perspective of particular decision makers in mind (e.g. payer or provider) ” (p.148, emphasis added).

Research relevance in health is also noted in discussion and debate regarding the value of qualitative research relative to the more established forms of quantitative health research. For example, Mays and Pope [ 26 ] suggest that qualitative research can be assessed “… by two broad criteria: validity and relevance ”. Their further discussion provides some insight into the several ways that research might be relevant, suggesting that:

“[r] esearch can be relevant when it either adds to knowledge or increases the confidence with which existing knowledge is regarded. Another important dimension of relevance is the extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the setting in which they were generated ” [ 27 ].

The work of Mays and Pope positions research relevance amidst the longstanding tension between internal and external validity. This tension reflects opposing foci on internal validity as the quality/rigour of research methodology and external validity as the applicability/transferability of research to other settings or contexts. While external validity is not the only measure of relevance – as research may remain relevant to some contexts even when not generalisable to others – it is an important component, and one that has not always attracted sufficient attention. For example, the Canadian health research community has focused considerable practical attention on internal validity as a critical component of evidence for clinical and health policy decisions. Evidence-based medicine, the Cochrane Collaboration, the Canadian and United States task forces on preventive healthcare/services and a long list of aligned groups have developed and established many tools to assess the quality of research evidence (e.g. GRADE [ 28 ]), with a predominant focus on issues of internal validity, and an emphasis on evidence hierarchies that is sometimes seen to be incompatible with ‘real world’ relevance. The relative lack of similar approaches or tools that focus on external validity in health research is notable, though movements to marshal evidence in support of sound public policy, such as the Campbell Collaboration, have attended to issues of external validity in other areas of health and social policy [ 29 ]. Further, there are emerging approaches and tools for documenting the external validity of health research and facilitating its use [ 30 ]. For example, WHO has supported the development of workbooks to contextualise health systems guidance for different contexts [ 31 ] and the field of local applicability and transferability of research has emerged to facilitate the adaptation of interventions from one setting to another, including the development of some well-documented tools like RE-AIM [ 32 ].

Alongside these emerging approaches and tools sits the established field of KT. KT has a strong history in Canada with a distinctive feature being a reliance on stakeholder engagement to support a commitment to improve research relevance. For example, the AIHS framework relies heavily on KT and stakeholder engagement approaches as part of its RIA, describing the mobilisation of knowledge through “ …a process of interactions, feedback, and engagement using a variety of mechanisms (e.g. collaborations, partnerships, networks, knowledge brokering) with relevant target audiences (i.e. actors and performers) across the health sector ” ([ 8 ] p. 362). Experience in stakeholder engagement, particularly with clinical, management and policy decision-makers, has become fairly extensive and there is now increased attention on engaging patients as core stakeholders in health research. If relevance is truly subjective, then KT efforts (including engagement, dissemination, promotion, communication) would appear to represent reasonable approaches for articulating, conveying and improving research relevance. However, if there are underlying elements of relevance that are more universal, then there is a risk that KT efforts – and subjectivist approaches to ensuring relevance – are akin to commercial marketing or communication strategies where the aim is to ‘sell’ more product and/or generate more influence that may not align with a more objective lens.

In sum, the health research community in Canada has a longstanding history of critically appraising research quality based on study design and research methodology, with greater emphasis on internal rather than external validity. As the same time, there is established expertise in KT, emphasising engagement with research users and adaptation to settings or contexts of use – approaches that may imply a subjectivist interpretation of relevance. Thus, while relevance is an important concept for the health research enterprise, its use is largely tacit and taken for granted.

Non-health sector perspectives

To unpack relevance further we consider some non-health sector perspectives that give attention to the term, often with formal definitions or taxonomies established. Examples include the legal, financial accounting, education and web search (information retrieval) sectors, each of which are briefly described below.

From a legal perspective, relevance has a specific meaning that relates to the admissibility of evidence in terms of its probative value (i.e. the extent to which evidence contributes to proving an important matter of fact) [ 33 ]. For example, a common objection to legal testimony or evidence is that it is ‘irrelevant’ [ 34 ]. Legal processes for considering the admissibility or legal-relevance of evidence are firmly established, requiring explicit declaration of evidentiary sources and direct consideration of that evidence as it relates both to a specific case and related historical precedents, something that is undeveloped in the health sector [ 35 ]. It is the formality, explicitness and retrospective nature of this process, which is directly associated with a specific case (or decision), that is characteristic of the consideration of relevance in the legal context.

Financial accounting provides another perspective on relevance. In this field, relevance is viewed as a fundamental component of generally accepted accounting principles. Relevance and materiality are emphasised such that accountants and auditors focus on financial information that meets the decision-making needs of users and is expected to affect their decisions. In financial accounting, ‘value relevance’ provides a more focused perspective on relevance, defined as “ …the ability of information disclosed by financial statements to capture and summarise firm value. Value relevance can be measured through the statistical relations between information presented by financial statements and stock market values or returns ” [ 36 ]. Similar to the legal perspective, the financial accounting perspective on relevance is set with a formal context, where the focal point (i.e. financial performance) is clear and principles (i.e. generally accepted accounting principles) and processes (i.e. financial reporting and auditing) are clearly established and monitored.

Education provides a slightly more expansive approach to operationalising relevance, given the more general aim of the enterprise. In the United States, the Glossary of Education Reform [ 37 ] notes that “ …the term relevance typically refers to learning experiences that are either directly applicable to the personal aspirations, interests, or cultural experiences of students (personal relevance) or that are connected in some way to real-world issues, problems, and contexts (life relevance) ”. They further state that “ personal relevance occurs when learning is connected to an individual student’s interests, aspirations, and life experiences ”, while “ life relevance occurs when learning is connected in some way to real-world issues, problems, and contexts outside of school ”. A similar framing of relevance in this context suggests that it “…extends the learning beyond the classroom by teaching students to apply what they are learning to real world situations ” [ 38 ]. While the education sector also makes numerous references to a ‘rigour and relevance’ dyad [ 39 ] in contrast to the dominance of the internal validity focus in healthcare, it is the prominent dual focus on ‘personal’ relevance (with its subjectivist orientation) and ‘life’ or ‘real world’ relevance (with its more universal orientation) that seems to most clearly define the education sector’s perspective on relevance.

One of the most intensive and competitive sectors focusing on relevance is the web search (or information retrieval) field. This includes dominant search engines such as Google and Bing, as well as a wide range of commercial and social media sites such as Amazon, eBay, Facebook and LinkedIn, that compete either directly or indirectly on their ability to identify relevant information in response to user queries. Therefore, the ability of these organisations to advance the theory and practice related to relevance is fundamental to their success. For example, Google was built upon the effectiveness of its search algorithm, which is in a constant state of evolution. Both explicit and implicit approaches to assess relevance are used to contribute to search algorithm refinements [ 40 ]. The explicit approach focuses on ‘relevance ratings’, whereby evaluators (e.g. human raters) are contracted to assess the degree of ‘helpfulness’ of search results paired to specific search queries [ 41 ]. The implicit approach to assess relevance monitors and aggregates search behaviour of millions of users who are likely unaware that their behaviour is being assessed. Google has more recently advanced ‘personalised relevance’, which uses past individual search behaviour to personalise/tailor future search results for the same individual. Pariser has critiqued this concept as “ the filter bubble ” [ 42 ], warning that Google’s intent to optimise search algorithms for personal relevance creates a “ …personal ecosystem of information… ” that limits the diversity of search results and promotes insularity. This personal relevance is situated within the pervasiveness of social media, which facilitates the advancement of ‘social relevance’. Personal and social relevance highlight two important orientations towards relevance – one built on increasingly detailed understanding of individual preferences and the other reflecting the growing power and increasing accessibility of crowd-sourced perspectives. Overall, web search has made important contributions to how we understand and operationalise relevance, including the use of increasingly sophisticated explicit and implicit feedback mechanisms and the ability to draw upon and analyse big data sets. Web search has also exposed the contrasting orientations of personal and social relevance that underscore the challenges of combining or integrating different relevance assessments.

These non-health sector perspectives on relevance highlight several considerations. First, they reinforce general findings that point to perspective, decision context, timeliness and precision of focus or ‘fit’ as key elements of relevance. Additionally, they highlight a few distinctive considerations. The formalistic contexts of financial accounting and law emphasise issues such as precedent and legitimacy, implying that relevance in a research sense might require the demonstration of some legitimate or credible association between research and its use or user, among other considerations. Further, the complex consumerist world of social media highlights some of the challenges of a purely subjectivist definition of relevance. Whereas the International Society for Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research guidance takes a subjectivist stance in suggesting that, “[t] here is no correct answer for relevance ” [ 24 ], the “ filter bubble ” criticised by Pariser [ 42 ] suggests otherwise. Relevance solely to the personally-perceived interests of a research user is unlikely to adequately serve the collective commitments to health and health equity that are especially germane to the health research enterprise.

Forward-looking considerations for assessing the relevance of health research

To this point, we have endeavoured to unpack relevance from theoretical and practical perspectives. In light of these insights and in the context of persistent interest in research impact assessment and evolving interest in research relevance, we now turn to some specific forward-looking considerations for research relevance assessment (RRA).

Relevance of research versus everything else

The first consideration for RRA is the acknowledgement that research is only one of many sources of insight to inform the needs or actions of research users. A research user is influenced by a wide range of political, legal, media, economic and other contextual information, interactions and experiences, as well as prevailing organisational governance, leadership, culture and values that all serve to complement (and often dominate) any insights that might be derived from research [ 43 ]. This reality implies that ‘relevance’ has a different meaning for researchers and research users. Researchers are typically interested in the relevance of a specific research product or activity for identifiable actions of (potentially) multiple research users; relevance is here judged relative to both the perceived needs of research users, and the extent and content of other related research. In contrast, research users are typically focused on identifying multiple relevant inputs to guide a specific action, only some of which may be research; relevance is here judged relative to both the research user’s needs and the form and content of the other inputs.

Given these distinct orientations to research relevance, RRA needs to be explicit about its comparative lens. Clear distinctions should be made between relevance based on the merits of the research product or activity (researcher lens) and relevance based on the relative value of research compared to other research and non-research sources (research user lens). RRA provides an opportunity to build more robust ways to characterise and assess the contribution of research to research users, including a more systematic and transparent articulation of anticipated research uses (akin to the Research Councils UK’s ‘Pathways to Impact’ [ 44 ] or descriptions of planned study design and methodological approach published in study protocols/registrations for randomised controlled trials or systematic reviews).

Beyond instrumental uses of research

The considerations noted above rely heavily on instrumental uses of research. Theoretically derived definitions of relevance, such as Floridi’s [ 14 ], tend to focus on the response to a specified question. This suggests a direct and tangible connection between research and its ‘use’. However, as Weiss [ 43 ] and others have observed, most types of research use are not instrumental, where use is documented and explicitly addresses a specific query or challenge for a research user. Rather, research use tends to be more conceptual, where use is indirect and evolves over time, or symbolic, where use may be politically or tactically motivated [ 43 ]. Research may also create externalities or unintended effects. For example, general research activity might support an engaged learning environment, interactive research relationships, and additional research-related discourse that provides benefits that are not attributable to any specific research product or activity. This has important ramifications for how research is funded and the role that relevance can play in that assessment. Ultimately, RRA needs to go beyond a singular understanding of research use as instrumental use, to develop better methods for capturing and assessing the relevance of the many non-instrumental uses of research.

The temporal factor

Another closely related consideration for RRA is the temporal context. Almost all research is conducted in a temporally defined period. Yet, while the quality of research is typically characterised by its methodology, which is a static feature typically not subject to temporal variation (e.g. the assessed quality of a randomised controlled trial should be consistent over time), relevance of research can be considered at any time (e.g. prior to the initiation of a research study or at different points in time post-completion) and is therefore subject to dynamic perceptions as they pertain to evolving action or decision contexts. Cohen [ 15 ] suggests that “ …relevance, like reasoning, has a prospective dimension as well as a retrospective one. It helps prediction as well as explanation ” (p. 182). The important insight is that, in contrast to research quality, the relevance of a specific research product can change over time, making assessment of research relevance more challenging.

This requires RRA to acknowledge the temporal factor and its associated implications for research relevance. At minimum, RRA should specify the temporal context as either pre-research (e.g. proposal/funding stage) or post-research (e.g. after research results have been produced). RRA at the pre-research stage focuses on proposed inputs and hypothetical outputs and outcomes, and may be more likely to overestimate instrumental research use and underestimate non-instrumental use. RRA at the post-research stage focuses mainly on the importance and value of actual outputs and tangible results, and may capture more non-instrumental research use. The pre-research stage is clearly aligned with research funding/investment processes, while the post-research stage can contribute to retrospective return-on-investment calculations and more general research impact assessment. However, employing this simple temporal categorisation should not lead us to lose sight of the dynamic, iterative nature of research relevance and the opportunity to assess it at interim and ongoing stages that captures re-interpretations or re-applications of research findings over time.

Moving from a subjective to an intersubjective understanding of relevance

An underlying theme in our review of relevance is subjectivity. Consider the broad scientific paradigms of positivism and interpretivism that are typically respectively aligned with research quality and research relevance. Research quality can be viewed as relating to characteristics or features that are assessed objectively, while research relevance may be seen as subjectively adjudicated. The subjective focus emphasises the variability of different perspectives and contexts and the suggestion that anyone can have a different take on the relevance of a specific research product or activity. For RRA, this reinforces a user-centred orientation to relevance assessment that privileges the judgment of the interrogator and raises the key question regarding who is positioned as the main arbiter of research relevance.

However, while relevance may never be characterised as universal, it could be argued that it is not purely subjective either. Rather, relevance may be more consistent with an intersubjective understanding that emphasises the extent of agreement or shared understanding among individual subjective perspectives representing a way to bridge the personal and the universal. The intersubjective view, while not presenting an objective approach to measuring relevance, does provide a road towards a meaningful and structured assessment of research relevance. It also emphasises the importance of representation in forging the intersubjective judgments that guide the research enterprise.

This paper has unpacked research relevance from different perspectives and outlined key considerations for its assessment. Alongside research impact assessment, research relevance seems increasingly important in justifying research investments and guiding strategic research planning. Indeed, judgments of ‘relevance’ are becoming a key component of the health research enterprise. However, consideration of relevance has been largely tacit in the health research community, often depending on unexplained interpretations of value, fit and potential for impact. Reviewing the various uses of relevance in health research, the concept is sometimes used as a synonym for research impact or positioned as a reliable predictor of later consequence. In many ways, research relevance seems a necessary condition for impact – a process or component of efforts to make rigorous research usable. However, relevance is not a necessary or sufficient condition to achieve impact. We expect that research that is relevant, and thus accountable to specific and legitimate users, will be impactful, but this may not necessarily be the case where other factors intervene. Additionally, we may expect that research that is impactful will be appropriately accountable – but again, this is not necessarily the case. Ultimately, relevance stands apart from research impact. Like rigour, relevance is a complementary but distinctive dimension of what it is that ensures ‘the good’ in health research.

While ‘relevance’ is ever-present, understanding of the concept in terms of health research is emergent and not well codified. To improve our understanding, this paper outlines four key considerations, including how research relevance assessments (1) orientate to, capture and compare research versus non-research sources, (2) consider both instrumental versus non-instrumental uses of research, (3) accommodate dynamic temporal-shifting perspectives on research, and (4) align with an intersubjective understanding of relevance. We believe careful and explicit consideration of research relevance, guided by transparent principles and processes is vital to gauge the overall value and impact of a wide range of individual and collective research efforts and investments. We hope this paper generates more discussion and debate to facilitate progress.

Acknowledgements

We acknowledge and appreciate the contributions of participants of a roundtable discussion to gather feedback on an earlier version of this paper. Participants included Simon Denegri, National Director for Public Participation and Engagement in Research, National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) UK, and Chair of INVOLVE, UK; Lee Fairclough, Vice-President, Quality Improvement, Health Quality Ontario; Michael Hillmer, Director, Planning, Research and Analysis Branch, Ontario Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care; John McLaughlin, Chief Science Officer and Senior Scientist, Public Health Ontario; Allison Paprica, Director, Strategic Partnerships, ICES; Michael Schull, President and CEO, ICES; and Vasanthi Srinivasan, Executive Director, Ontario Strategy for Patient-Oriented Research (SPOR) SUPPORT Unit (OSSU). We also want to thank John Lavis of the McMaster Health Forum for his very helpful comments on an earlier draft. Though we owe these individuals and organisations many thanks for their insights and support, we alone are responsible for the final product.

This work was commissioned by the Ontario SPOR Support Unit (OSSU). The executive director of the OSSU was one of the participants in a roundtable discussion to gather feedback on an earlier version of this paper, but beyond that, the OSSU did not have any role in the design of the study, collection, analysis or interpretation of the data, or writing of the manuscript.

Availability of data and materials

Authors’ contributions.

ADB acquired funding for the study. MJD, FAM and ADB conceptualised the study. MJD, FAM, CF and ADB participated in the review and writing of the manuscript. MJD, FAM and ADB participated in the roundtable discussion. MJD, FAM and ADB reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript (CF passed away prior to submission of the manuscript).

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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Not applicable.

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Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Abbreviations

This article is dedicated to the memory of Dr Cy Frank, our co-author and esteemed colleague, whose untimely death occurred midway through development of this work. Among his many interests, Dr Frank was a champion for improving understanding of research impact assessment and provided many insights on the concept of research relevance, some of which we expand upon in this article. His many contributions to the health sector will live on, but he will be greatly missed.

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Mark J. Dobrow, Email: [email protected] .

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Adalsteinn D. Brown, Email: [email protected] .

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Evaluating Sources

Is it relevant.

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Goal: Find a quality source, relevant for your information needs.

rel·e·vance   (noun):  the quality or state of being, closely connected or appropriate. (i.e., "this film has contemporary relevance")

Relevance considers the importance of the information for your research needs. A relevant information source answers your research question. To determine relevance, the purpose and bias must be understood. In fact, all aspects of evaluation must be taken into consideration to determine relevance.  

Is it relevant? Ask these questions:

• How is the information useful to you? How well does it relate to your topic or answer your research question?
• What details are provided that specifically address and answer your research question or thesis?
• Relevance is intermixed with all of the other evaluation criteria: What is the purpose of this source? Is it to sell a product, educate, advocate or persuade, or to entertain? Who is the intended audience? Are political, ideological, cultural, religious, institutional, or personal biases evident? 

Don't just pick the source at the top of your search results!

Remember, search engines match words, not concepts.  Some search engines and databases will sort search results by "relevance." This only means that there is an algorithm which uses measures like how many times your search words appear on the page, or whether they are in the title. The computer can't determine whether the source is actually relevant to you -- only you can do that. 

Look for an abstract or summary that can tell you more about the source. 

In a book, you might need to scan the table of contents or even read the preface or introduction.

In a scholarly research article, read the abstract first - it should summarize the research. Then read the introduction, and the discussion and/or conclusion before diving into to the rest of the article. 

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Overview of Relevance in Research

Published 16 October, 2023

Relevance in research is an interconnection of one research topic with others. It is basically the level up to which you can apply research findings in real life. In simple words, the investigation which you are conducting is useful for others.

Meaning of Relevance in Research

The relevance in research is the understanding of how finding or studying one thing affects another. “Relevance” can also be seen as the extent to which a certain study or theory is significant.

Research is the pursuit of new knowledge. The relevancy in research means that study which you are performing should be useful for others as well- and high relevancies mean research which you are performing has great potential to fill a gap in knowledge, especially if it’s something people currently don’t know about or understand very well!

For instance:

• If you are conducting a market survey for an organization then the data which you are collecting through the survey research should be useful for your firm. High relevancy means the investigation which you are performing has a high potential of filling the knowledge gap.
• If you are selecting the unemployment issue as your research topic. You are performing a research process for identifying the root cause of unemployment and then information which you have gathered through research can be helpful for formulating effective policies for the nation.

Significance of relevance in research

Relevance has great significance in research as it helps you in maintaining the momentum. In addition to this, it is the relevant information that will help you in making your dissertation interesting to the reader. Relevancy is the factor in research that helps you and the reader in developing confidence about the findings and outcome of the investigation.

Maintaining a high level of relevance is also very crucial for getting the dissertation approved by the tutor. It is very much essential for you to make sure that the topic or field which you are selecting for performing the investigation has academic and social relevance. A high level of relevancy in research is very much crucial for eliminating risk and ethical issues.

Types of relevance in research        

The different types of relevance in research are:

1. Academic relevance

This basically means level up to which investigation performed on a particular topic has helped you in accomplishing your academic goals. Academic relevance is a measure of how much something helped you progress towards your academic goals. In order to be academically relevant, the information one has learned must have been able to assist in some way with achieving their own personal goal or objective.

Academic relevance is an important consideration for any student when deciding to study a subject. It can help you determine if the investigation performed on that topic will be helpful in achieving your academic goals.

2. Societal relevance  

It is referred to as the information gathered through investigation helps in developing the understanding of the society. Good research will help us understand society better by giving insight into how it functions- or more specifically what processes are occurring behind the scenes that we might not see otherwise due to our own biases as someone embedded in this culture.

3. Practical relevance  

It is basically an extent up to which the findings could be applied in real-life situations . Research that has practical relevance not only adds value but also can make a recommendation for particular industries or improve processes in an organization.

4. Scientific relevance

It is basically an extent up to which you can fill the knowledge gap thorough research on a specific topic. You have to make sure that the research you are doing will fill in a gap of knowledge for the scientific community. The best way to do this is by extensively researching your topic and finding what hasn’t been researched yet. It’s important not just because it makes an impact on science but also so that you find something stimulating enough for you as well!

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Scientific Relevance

• First Online: 14 July 2022

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Research results are scientifically relevant if they help expand the knowledge base, advance our understanding of a certain subject, or provide interdisciplinary insights. In other words, they represent findings that are novel, worth knowing, and accepted by the scientific community. Scientifically relevant information serves the interests of scientific inquiry and emerges from good scientific practices, i.e. from processes that are transparent and public.

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Zweck, A. (2005). Qualitätssicherung in der Zukunftsforschung. Wissenschaftsmanagement, 2 , 7–13.

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Weimert, B., Zweck, A. (2022). Scientific Relevance. In: Gerhold, L., et al. Standards of Futures Research. Zukunft und Forschung. Springer VS, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-35806-8_12

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21 Evaluating for Relevance

Relevant sources are those that pertain to your research question.

One thing to consider early on as you determine relevance is the effect that timeliness (or what is sometimes referred to as the source’s currency) should have on deciding whether a source is relevant. Your research question will help determine that.

For instance, if your research question is about the street artist Banksy , then you probably should consider only the most recent sources relevant since his work only became most notable in the 21st century.  However, if you research question is about the discovery of insulin by Canadians Banting and Best, then sources from the early 20th century are relevant.

But suppose your research question is about the Edo Period in Japan (1603-1868) or about Robert Falcon Scott, who explored the Antarctic from 1901-1913. In these cases, an item from 1918 might be just as useful as an item from 2018 (although new information may have been found in the 100 year gap). But something from 1899 about Antarctica or from 1597 about Japan would NOT be current enough for these research questions.

These example research questions also give you two more clues about how to treat the timeliness or currency of sources as you consider relevance:

• Because of how long ago they lived or occurred, it would be unusual for many sources on Robert Scott or the Edo Period to have been published very recently. So, unlike sources for the life sciences, whether a source is very recent should probably not determine its relevance to those research questions.
• Primary sources would be considered especially relevant to all three research questions. Examples such as Scott’s diaries and expedition photographs, as well as paintings, literature, clothing, and household items from the Edo Period go a long way to explain faraway people and times. (See Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Sources .)

Where to Look in Websites, Articles, and Books

The information below tells where to look and what questions to ask yourself to assess three kinds of sources’ relevance to your research question. Whatever you do, don’t stop evaluating a source after looking only at the website’s name or the title of another source.

Save time by looking in particular places in sources for information that will help you figure out whether the source is relevant to your research project. Much of our advice below comes from “Speedy Reading” in The Craft of Research , second edition, by Wayne Booth, Gregory Colomb, and Joseph Williams, 2003, pp. 108-109.

On a website , check the name of the website and its articles for clues that they contain material relevant to your research question. Consider whether the timeliness of the site should have an impact on what information can be considered relevant. Skim for any dates, datelines, ‘What’s New’ pages, and press releases to see whether any website content works with the time considerations you need. Page creation or revision dates that you find can also help.

Skim any site map and index on the website for key words related to your research question. If there is a search box on the site, try the key words of your research question. Do you see enough content about your keywords to make you think parts of the website could be helpful?

For an article , think about the title. Does it have anything to do with your research question? Consider whether time should have an impact on what sources can be considered relevant. If so, is the publication date within your parameters? Also skim the abstract to see whether the article works with the time considerations you need. For instance, if there is a time period in your research question, does the article address the same time period or was it created in that time period?

Look at the abstract and section headings in the article to locate the problem or question that the article addresses, its solution, and the outline of the article’s argument for its main claim. Can those help answer your research question? Do they make it seem the article will give you information about what others have written about your research question? Do they offer a description of the situation surrounding your research question?

Do the article’s introduction and conclusion sections help you answer your research question and/or offer a description of the situation surrounding your question so you can explain in your final product why the question is important? Check whether the bibliography contains keywords related to your research question. Do the sources cited by the bibliography pertain to your research question?

For a book , check whether the title indicates the book could be about your research question. Consider when the book was published (usually listed in the library catalog or on the back of the book’s title page). Is it too early or late for any time constraints in your research question? The table of contents and chapter summaries can help indicate if the book addresses your research question. Do they also give you information about what others have written about your research question? Do they offer a description of the situation surrounding your research question? Skim the index for topics with the most page references. Do the topics with the most page references pertain to your research question?

Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research Copyright © 2015 by Teaching & Learning, Ohio State University Libraries is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Relevance Of Research – Why Is It So Important?

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Research is a significant element in academia. It is a tool that helps us solve problems, make new discoveries, and understand the world better in general. During the research process , you can make a difference in people’s lives or in society. For this reason, students must complete research papers as part of any course in higher education. This article discusses the relevance of research in different fields of academic writing .

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 In a nutshell: Relevance of research
• 2 Definition: Relevance of research
• 3 How to conduct research
• 4 Relevance of research in different courses
• 5 Types of relevance in research
• 6 Knowledge and learning
• 7 Issues and public awareness
• 8 A successful business
• 9 Lies and truths
• 10 Opportunities
• 11 Information
• 12 Relevance of research: Exercise for the mind

In a nutshell: Relevance of research

• Many academic fields require students to conduct academic research as part of their studies. Overall, research is also applied heavily by students in learning and the academic writing process.
• The key relevance of research in academia is that it allows students and researchers to find sources to make their arguments on a specific topic. Furthermore, most opinions are conceived through the research process.
• Besides students, trained professionals also recognize the relevance of research.

Definition: Relevance of research

Relevance of research refers to the importance of research in various fields. Here are a few reasons why research is relevant:

• It builds knowledge and promotes learning.
• It helps to increase public awareness.
• Research promotes success in business and other fields.
• It encourages the disapproval of lies and supports facts and truths.
• Research is a means for discovering opportunities and helps build credibility.
• It promotes confidence and passion in reading, sharing information, analyzing, and writing.
• Research nourishes and helps exercise the mind.

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How to conduct research

The relevance of research is not a topic of debate. Therefore, students must learn how to research, so they can enjoy the benefits. The following steps explain how to conduct research.

• Choosing a topic and identifying a problem: Firstly, you must come up with ideas and find a general area of interest. Once you are settled on a topic, you must determine an issue that needs to be addressed in the area and why it matters.
• Formulating research questions and creating a research design: Next, you must create one or more research questions that target what you want to find out through your research. Additionally, create a practical framework for answering your research questions (research design).
• Writing a research proposal: Finally, create a research proposal that outlines the relevance of the research, context, purpose, and your plan. From there, you can start searching for sources and gathering information for your research.

Relevance of research in different courses

The relevance of research stands out in different courses. For this reason, most courses encourage their students to apply research in their studies and academic writing. Universities encourage and engage in research as part of their mission to promote learning and discovery.

Let us look at the relevance of research in different courses:

Types of relevance in research

There are different forms of the relevance of research. Let us look at some of the key ones.

Academic relevance

Societal relevance, practical relevance, scientific relevance.

The academic relevance of research is perhaps the most critical. Research is critical in the promotion of academic knowledge of a subject. Moreover, research helps individuals meet their academic goals. Academic relevance comes from learned information, which is obtained through research.

The purpose of research extends beyond academia and has a significant impact on society. Research generates knowledge that aids in addressing real-world problems and making informed decisions. Research provides a more profound understanding of society and its functions.

The relevance of research is also important in everyday life. Research findings apply in real-life situations to various extents. For instance, research allows entrepreneurs to discover problems and wants in society, and the findings help resolve these problems. Researchers make recommendations for particular industries and promote improved processes in critical organizations.

Research allows practitioners in various fields of science to bridge the knowledge gap in various subjects. Research also helps scientists make new and significant discoveries that help advance different fields. Scientists need research to come up with life-changing inventions.

Knowledge and learning

Research helps facilitate knowledge acquisition and learning. Students, academics, professionals, and non-professionals depend on research as a tool for learning and understanding a subject better. Research also equips individuals with information about the world and skills for survival and life improvement.

Issues and public awareness

Research is a tool for understanding issues and raising public awareness. It helps people understand each other and their world. People use research to understand current issues.

A successful business

Research is critical for business success. Successful companies and individuals rely on market and client research. It helps them understand their clients, their needs, and how to provide them with what they need. Therefore, research helps with targeted marketing. It also helps businesses understand their competition and establish ways to stand out.

Lies and truths

Background research and private investigations are critical in debunking lies and promoting truths. Researchers apply field-testing and peer reviews to validate facts. Therefore, research builds integrity and competence in facts. Fact-checking helps discover research bias, fake news, and propaganda.

Opportunities

Research helps people find, gauge, and seize opportunities. Therefore, it helps individuals nurture their potential and achieve goals by taking advantage of opportunities. People can use research to maximize career options and investments.

Information

Research promotes a passion and love for reading, writing, analyzing, and sharing information. It is a tool for critical thinking and comprehension. Sharing research promotes a wider understanding of a subject.

Relevance of research: Exercise for the mind

Research nourishes and exercises the mind. Critical thinking is a tool for promoting mental health. Students earn critical reasoning skills from research, which helps with their learning. Various studies have proven that mentally stimulating activities like research can promote brain health.

What is the meaning of relevance in research?

The relevance of research is the understanding of how studying one thing can affect another. It is the extent to which a specific study or theory is significant.

What are the different types of relevance of research?

The various forms of the relevance of research are:

How does research promote mental health?

Research nourishes and exercises the mind. Critical thinking is a tool for promoting mental health. Students earn critical reasoning skills from research, which helps with their learning.

What is the scientific relevance of research?

Research allows practitioners in various fields of science to bridge the knowledge gap in various subjects. It helps scientists make new and significant discoveries that help advance different fields.

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Home » Research Topics – Ideas and Examples

Research Topics – Ideas and Examples

Table of Contents

Research Topic

Definition:

Research topic is a specific subject or area of interest that a researcher wants to investigate or explore in-depth through research. It is the overarching theme or question that guides a research project and helps to focus the research activities towards a clear objective.

How to Choose Research Topic

You can Choose a Research Topic by following the below guide:

Identify your Interests

One of the most important factors to consider when choosing a research topic is your personal interest. This is because you will be spending a considerable amount of time researching and writing about the topic, so it’s essential that you are genuinely interested and passionate about it. Start by brainstorming a list of potential research topics based on your interests, hobbies, or areas of expertise. You can also consider the courses that you’ve enjoyed the most or the topics that have stood out to you in your readings.

Review the Literature

Before deciding on a research topic, you need to understand what has already been written about it. Conducting a preliminary review of the existing literature in your field can help you identify gaps in knowledge, inconsistencies in findings, or unanswered questions that you can explore further. You can do this by reading academic articles, books, and other relevant sources in your field. Make notes of the themes or topics that emerge and use this information to guide your research question.

Consult with your Advisor

Your academic advisor or a mentor in your field can provide you with valuable insights and guidance on choosing a research topic. They can help you identify areas of interest, suggest potential research questions, and provide feedback on the feasibility of your research proposal. They can also direct you towards relevant literature and resources that can help you develop your research further.

Consider the Scope and Feasibility

The research topic you choose should be manageable within the time and resource constraints of your project. Be mindful of the scope of your research and ensure that you are not trying to tackle a topic that is too broad or too narrow. If your topic is too broad, you may find it challenging to conduct a comprehensive analysis, while if it’s too narrow, you may struggle to find enough material to support your research.

Brainstorm with Peers

Discussing potential research topics with your peers or colleagues can help you generate new ideas and perspectives. They may have insights or expertise that you haven’t considered, and their feedback can help you refine your research question. You can also join academic groups or attend conferences in your field to network with other researchers and get inspiration for your research.

Consider the Relevance

Choose a research topic that is relevant to your field of study and has the potential to contribute to the existing knowledge. You can consider the latest trends and emerging issues in your field to identify topics that are both relevant and interesting. Conducting research on a topic that is timely and relevant can also increase the likelihood of getting published or presenting your research at conferences.

Keep an Open Mind

While it’s essential to choose a research topic that aligns with your interests and expertise, you should also be open to exploring new ideas or topics that may be outside of your comfort zone. Consider researching a topic that challenges your assumptions or introduces new perspectives that you haven’t considered before. You may discover new insights or perspectives that can enrich your research and contribute to your growth as a researcher.

Components of Research Topic

A research topic typically consists of several components that help to define and clarify the subject matter of the research project. These components include:

• Research problem or question: This is the central issue or inquiry that the research seeks to address. It should be well-defined and focused, with clear boundaries that limit the scope of the research.
• Background and context: This component provides the necessary background information and context for the research topic. It explains why the research problem or question is important, relevant, and timely. It may also include a literature review that summarizes the existing research on the topic.
• Objectives or goals : This component outlines the specific objectives or goals that the research seeks to achieve. It should be clear and concise, and should align with the research problem or question.
• Methodology : This component describes the research methods and techniques that will be used to collect and analyze data. It should be detailed enough to provide a clear understanding of how the research will be conducted, including the sampling method, data collection tools, and statistical analyses.
• Significance or contribution : This component explains the significance or contribution of the research topic. It should demonstrate how the research will add to the existing knowledge in the field, and how it will benefit practitioners, policymakers, or society at large.
• Limitations: This component outlines the limitations of the research, including any potential biases, assumptions, or constraints. It should be transparent and honest about the potential shortcomings of the research, and how these limitations will be addressed.
• Expected outcomes or findings : This component provides an overview of the expected outcomes or findings of the research project. It should be realistic and based on the research objectives and methodology.

Purpose of Research Topic

The purpose of a research topic is to identify a specific area of inquiry that the researcher wants to explore and investigate. A research topic is typically a broad area of interest that requires further exploration and refinement through the research process. It provides a clear focus and direction for the research project, and helps to define the research questions and objectives. A well-defined research topic also helps to ensure that the research is relevant and useful, and can contribute to the existing body of knowledge in the field. Ultimately, the purpose of a research topic is to generate new insights, knowledge, and understanding about a particular phenomenon, issue, or problem.

Characteristics of Research Topic

some common characteristics of a well-defined research topic include:

• Relevance : A research topic should be relevant and significant to the field of study and address a current issue, problem, or gap in knowledge.
• Specificity : A research topic should be specific enough to allow for a focused investigation and clear understanding of the research question.
• Feasibility : A research topic should be feasible, meaning it should be possible to carry out the research within the given constraints of time, resources, and expertise.
• Novelty : A research topic should add to the existing body of knowledge by introducing new ideas, concepts, or theories.
• Clarity : A research topic should be clearly articulated and easy to understand, both for the researcher and for potential readers of the research.
• Importance : A research topic should be important and have practical implications for the field or society as a whole.
• Significance : A research topic should be significant and have the potential to generate new insights and understanding in the field.

Examples of Research Topics

Here are some examples of research topics that are currently relevant and in-demand in various fields:

• The impact of social media on mental health: With the rise of social media use, this topic has gained significant attention in recent years. Researchers could investigate how social media affects self-esteem, body image, and other mental health concerns.
• The use of artificial intelligence in healthcare: As healthcare becomes increasingly digitalized, researchers could explore the use of AI algorithms to predict and prevent disease, optimize treatment plans, and improve patient outcomes.
• Renewable energy and sustainable development: As the world seeks to reduce its carbon footprint, researchers could investigate the potential of renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power, and how these technologies can be integrated into existing infrastructure.
• The impact of workplace diversity and inclusion on employee productivity: With an increasing focus on diversity and inclusion in the workplace, researchers could investigate how these factors affect employee morale, productivity, and retention.
• Cybersecurity and data privacy: As data breaches and cyber attacks become more common, researchers could explore new methods of protecting sensitive information and preventing malicious attacks.
• T he impact of mindfulness and meditation on stress reduction: As stress-related health issues become more prevalent, researchers could investigate the effectiveness of mindfulness and meditation practices on reducing stress and improving overall well-being.

Research Topics Ideas

Here are some Research Topics Ideas from different fields:

• The impact of social media on mental health and well-being.
• The effectiveness of various teaching methods in improving academic performance in high schools.
• The role of AI and machine learning in healthcare: current applications and future potentials.
• The impact of climate change on wildlife habitats and conservation efforts.
• The effects of video game violence on aggressive behavior in young adults.
• The effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction techniques in reducing anxiety and depression.
• The impact of technology on human relationships and social interactions.
• The role of exercise in promoting physical and mental health in older adults.
• The causes and consequences of income inequality in developed and developing countries.
• The effects of cultural diversity in the workplace on job satisfaction and productivity.
• The impact of remote work on employee productivity and work-life balance.
• The relationship between sleep patterns and cognitive functioning.
• The effectiveness of online learning versus traditional classroom learning.
• The role of government policies in promoting renewable energy adoption.
• The effects of childhood trauma on mental health in adulthood.
• The impact of social media on political participation and civic engagement.
• The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating anxiety disorders.
• The relationship between nutrition and cognitive functioning.
• The impact of gentrification on urban communities.
• The effects of music on mood and emotional regulation.
• The impact of microplastics on marine ecosystems and food webs.
• The role of artificial intelligence in detecting and preventing cyberattacks.
• The effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions in managing chronic pain.
• The relationship between personality traits and job satisfaction.
• The effects of social isolation on mental and physical health in older adults.
• The impact of cultural and linguistic diversity on healthcare access and outcomes.
• The effectiveness of psychotherapy in treating depression and anxiety in adolescents.
• The relationship between exercise and cognitive aging.
• The effects of social media on body image and self-esteem.
• The role of corporate social responsibility in promoting sustainable business practices.
• The impact of mindfulness meditation on attention and focus in children.
• The relationship between political polarization and media consumption habits.
• The effects of urbanization on mental health and well-being.
• The role of social support in managing chronic illness.
• The impact of social media on romantic relationships and dating behaviors.
• The effectiveness of behavioral interventions in promoting physical activity in sedentary adults.
• The relationship between sleep quality and immune function.
• The effects of workplace diversity and inclusion programs on employee retention.
• The impact of climate change on global food security.
• The role of music therapy in improving communication and social skills in individuals with autism spectrum disorder.
• The impact of cultural values on the development of mental health stigma.
• The effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction techniques in reducing burnout in healthcare professionals.
• The relationship between social media use and body dissatisfaction among adolescents.
• The effects of nature exposure on cognitive functioning and well-being.
• The role of peer mentoring in promoting academic success in underrepresented student populations.
• The impact of neighborhood characteristics on physical activity and obesity.
• The effectiveness of cognitive rehabilitation interventions in improving cognitive functioning in individuals with traumatic brain injury.
• The relationship between organizational culture and employee job satisfaction.
• The effects of cultural immersion experiences on intercultural competence development.
• The role of assistive technology in promoting independence and quality of life for individuals with disabilities.
• The impact of workplace design on employee productivity and well-being.
• The impact of digital technologies on the music industry and artist revenues.
• The effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy in treating insomnia.
• The relationship between social media use and body weight perception among young adults.
• The effects of green spaces on mental health and well-being in urban areas.
• The role of mindfulness-based interventions in reducing substance use disorders.
• The impact of workplace bullying on employee turnover and job satisfaction.
• The effectiveness of animal-assisted therapy in treating mental health disorders.
• The relationship between teacher-student relationships and academic achievement.
• The effects of social support on resilience in individuals experiencing adversity.
• The role of cognitive aging in driving safety and mobility.
• The effectiveness of psychotherapy in treating post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
• The relationship between social media use and sleep quality.
• The effects of cultural competency training on healthcare providers’ attitudes and behaviors towards diverse patient populations.
• The role of exercise in preventing chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease.
• The impact of the gig economy on job security and worker rights.
• The effectiveness of art therapy in promoting emotional regulation and coping skills in children and adolescents.
• The relationship between parenting styles and child academic achievement.
• The effects of social comparison on well-being and self-esteem.
• The role of nutrition in promoting healthy aging and longevity.
• The impact of gender diversity in leadership on organizational performance.
• The effectiveness of family-based interventions in treating eating disorders.
• The relationship between social media use and perceived loneliness among older adults.
• The effects of mindfulness-based interventions on pain management in chronic pain patients.
• The role of physical activity in preventing and treating depression.
• The impact of cultural differences on communication and conflict resolution in international business.
• The effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) in treating anxiety disorders.
• The relationship between student engagement and academic success in higher education.
• The effects of discrimination on mental health outcomes in minority populations.
• The role of virtual reality in enhancing learning experiences.
• The impact of social media influencers on consumer behavior and brand loyalty.
• The effectiveness of acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) in treating chronic pain.
• The relationship between social media use and body image dissatisfaction among men.
• The effects of exposure to nature on cognitive functioning and creativity.
• The role of spirituality in coping with illness and disability.
• The impact of automation on employment and job displacement.
• The effectiveness of dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) in treating borderline personality disorder.
• The relationship between teacher-student relationships and school attendance.
• The effects of mindfulness-based interventions on workplace stress and burnout.
• The role of exercise in promoting cognitive functioning and brain health in older adults.
• The impact of diversity and inclusion initiatives on organizational innovation and creativity.
• The effectiveness of cognitive remediation therapy in treating schizophrenia.
• The relationship between social media use and body dissatisfaction among women.
• The effects of exposure to natural light on mood and sleep quality.
• The role of spirituality in enhancing well-being and resilience in military personnel.
• The impact of artificial intelligence on job training and skill development.
• The effectiveness of interpersonal therapy (IPT) in treating depression.
• The relationship between parental involvement and academic achievement among low-income students.
• The effects of mindfulness-based interventions on emotional regulation and coping skills in trauma survivors.
• The role of nutrition in preventing and treating mental health disorders.

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Science, health, and public trust.

September 8, 2021

Explaining How Research Works

We’ve heard “follow the science” a lot during the pandemic. But it seems science has taken us on a long and winding road filled with twists and turns, even changing directions at times. That’s led some people to feel they can’t trust science. But when what we know changes, it often means science is working.

Explaining the scientific process may be one way that science communicators can help maintain public trust in science. Placing research in the bigger context of its field and where it fits into the scientific process can help people better understand and interpret new findings as they emerge. A single study usually uncovers only a piece of a larger puzzle.

Questions about how the world works are often investigated on many different levels. For example, scientists can look at the different atoms in a molecule, cells in a tissue, or how different tissues or systems affect each other. Researchers often must choose one or a finite number of ways to investigate a question. It can take many different studies using different approaches to start piecing the whole picture together.

Sometimes it might seem like research results contradict each other. But often, studies are just looking at different aspects of the same problem. Researchers can also investigate a question using different techniques or timeframes. That may lead them to arrive at different conclusions from the same data.

Using the data available at the time of their study, scientists develop different explanations, or models. New information may mean that a novel model needs to be developed to account for it. The models that prevail are those that can withstand the test of time and incorporate new information. Science is a constantly evolving and self-correcting process.

Scientists gain more confidence about a model through the scientific process. They replicate each other’s work. They present at conferences. And papers undergo peer review, in which experts in the field review the work before it can be published in scientific journals. This helps ensure that the study is up to current scientific standards and maintains a level of integrity. Peer reviewers may find problems with the experiments or think different experiments are needed to justify the conclusions. They might even offer new ways to interpret the data.

It’s important for science communicators to consider which stage a study is at in the scientific process when deciding whether to cover it. Some studies are posted on preprint servers for other scientists to start weighing in on and haven’t yet been fully vetted. Results that haven't yet been subjected to scientific scrutiny should be reported on with care and context to avoid confusion or frustration from readers.

We’ve developed a one-page guide, "How Research Works: Understanding the Process of Science" to help communicators put the process of science into perspective. We hope it can serve as a useful resource to help explain why science changes—and why it’s important to expect that change. Please take a look and share your thoughts with us by sending an email to  [email protected].

Below are some additional resources:

• Discoveries in Basic Science: A Perfectly Imperfect Process
• When Clinical Research Is in the News
• What is Basic Science and Why is it Important?
• ​ What is a Research Organism?
• What Are Clinical Trials and Studies?
• Basic Research – Digital Media Kit
• Decoding Science: How Does Science Know What It Knows? (NAS)
• Can Science Help People Make Decisions ? (NAS)

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Research Implications | Definition, Examples & Tips

Introduction

What are research implications, why discuss research implications, types of implications in research, how do you present research implications.

Every scientific inquiry is built on previous studies and lays the groundwork for future research. The latter is where discussion of research implications lies. Researchers are expected not only to present what their findings suggest about the phenomenon being studied but also what the findings mean in a broader context.

In this article, we'll explore the nature of research implications as a means for contextualizing the findings of qualitative research and the foundation it sets for further research.

Research implications include any kind of discussion of what a particular study means for its research field and in general terms. Researchers write implications to lay out future research studies, make research recommendations based on proposed theoretical developments, and discuss practical and technological implications that can be applied in the real world.

To put it another way, research implications are intended to answer the question "what does this research mean?". Research implications look forward and out. Once findings are presented and discussed, the researcher lays out what the findings mean in a broader context and how they could guide subsequent research.

An aspect of academic writing that's related to implications is the discussion of the study's limitations. These limitations differ from implications in that they explore already acknowledged shortcomings in a study (e.g., a small sample size, an inherent weakness in a chosen methodological approach), but these limitations can also suggest how future research could address these shortcomings. Both the implications and recommendations are often coupled with limitations in a discussion section to explain the significance of the study's contributions to scientific knowledge.

Strictly speaking, there is a fine line between limitations and implications, one that a traditional approach to the scientific method may not adequately explore. Under the scientific method, the product of any research study addresses its research questions or confirms or challenges its expected outcomes. Fulfilling just this task, however, may overlook a more important step in the research process in terms of demonstrating significance.

One of the more famous research examples can provide useful insight. Galileo's experiments with falling objects allowed him to answer questions raised by Aristotle's understanding about gravity affecting objects of different weights. Galileo had something of a hypothesis - objects should fall at the same speed regardless of weight - based on a critique of then-current scientific knowledge - Aristotle's assertion about gravity - that he wanted to test in research. By conducting different experiments using inclines and pendulums (and supposedly one involving falling objects from the Tower of Pisa), he established a new understanding about gravity and its relationship (or lack thereof) to the weight of objects.

Discussion of that experiment focused on how the findings challenged Aristotle's understanding of physics. It did not, however, pose the next logical question: Why would an object like a feather fall at a much slower rate of descent than an object like a hammer if weight was not a factor?

Galileo's experiment and other similar experiments laid the groundwork for experiments on air resistance, most famously the Apollo 15 experiment on the moon where a feather and hammer fell at the same rate in a vacuum, absent any air resistance. The limitation Galileo had at the time was the inability to create a vacuum to test any theories about gravity and air resistance. The implications of his experiments testing Aristotle's claims include the call to further research that could eventually confirm or challenge his understanding of falling objects.

In formal scientific research, particularly in academic settings where peer review is an essential component, contemporary researchers are supposed to do more than simply report their findings. They are expected to engage in critical reflection in placing their research findings in a broader context. The peer review process in research publication often assesses the quality of a research paper by its ability to detail the significance of a given research study. Without an explicit description of the implications in research, readers may not necessarily know what importance the study and its findings holds for them.

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Breaking down the kinds of implications that your research findings might have will be useful in crafting a clearer and more persuasive presentation. More important than saying that the findings are compelling is arguing in what aspects the findings should prove useful.

There are different types of implications, and the type you should emphasize depends on your target audience.

Theoretical implications

When research findings present novel scientific knowledge, it should have an influence on existing theories by affirming, contradicting, or contextualizing them. This can mean the proposal of a brand new theoretical framework or developments to a existing one.

Keep in mind that, in qualitative research , researchers will often contextualize a theory rather than confirm or refute it. This means that a theory or conceptual framework that is applied to an unfamiliar context (e.g., a theory about adolescent development in a study involving graduate students) will undergo some sort of transformation due to the new analysis.

New understandings will likely develop more complex descriptions of theories as they are interpreted and re-interpreted in new contexts. The discussion of theoretical implications here requires researchers to consider how new theoretical developments might be applied to new data in future research.

Practical implications

More applied forums are interested in how a study's findings can be used in the real world. New developments in psychology could yield discussion of applications in psychiatry, while research in physics can lead to technological innovations in engineering and architecture. While some researchers focus on developing theory, others conduct research to generate actionable insights and tangible results for stakeholders.

Education research, for example, may present pathways to a new teaching method or assessment of learining outcomes. Theories about how students passively and actively develop expertise in subject-matter knowledge could eventually prompt scholars and practitioners to change existing pedagogies and materials that account for more novel understandings of teaching and learning.

Exploring the practical dimensions of research findings may touch on political implications such as policy recommendations, marketable technologies, or novel approaches to existing methods or processes. Discussion of implications along these lines is meant to promote further research and activity in the field to support these practical developments.

Methodological implications

Qualitative research methods are always under constant development and innovation. Moreover, applying research methods in new contexts or for novel research inquiries can lead to unanticipated results that might cause a researcher to reflect on and iterate on their methods of data collection and analysis .

Critical reflections on research methods are not meant to assert that the study was conducted without the necessary rigor . However, rigorous and transparent researchers are expected to argue that further iterations of the research that address any methodological gaps can only bolster the persuasiveness of the findings or generate richer insights.

There are many possible avenues for implications in terms of innovating on methodology. Does the nature of your interview questions change when interviewing certain populations? Should you change certain practices when collecting data in an ethnography to establish rapport with research participants ? How does the use of technology influence the collection and analysis of data?

All of these questions are worth discussing, with the answers providing useful guidance to those who want to base their own study design on yours. As a result, it's important to devote some space in your paper or presentation to how you conducted your study and what you would do in future iterations of your study to bolster its research rigor.

Presenting research implications or writing research implications in a research paper is a matter of answering the following question: Why should scholars read or pay attention to your research? Especially in the social sciences, the potential impact of a study is not always a foregone conclusion. In other words, to make the findings as insightful and persuasive to your audience as they are to you, you need to persuade them beyond the presentation of the analysis and the insights generated.

Here are a few main principles to achieve this task. In broad terms, they focus on what the findings mean to you, what it should mean to others, and what those impacts might mean in context.

Establish importance

Academic research writing tends to follow a structure that narrates a study from the researcher's motivation to conduct the research to why the research's findings matter. While there's seldom a strict requirement for sections in a paper or presentation, understanding commonly used patterns in academic writing will point out where the research implications are discussed.

If you look at a typical research paper abstract in a peer-reviewed journal , for example, you might find that the last sentence or two explicitly establishes why the research is useful to motivate readers to look at the paper more deeply. In the body of the paper, this is further explained in detail towards the end of the introduction and discussion sections and in the conclusion section. These areas are where you should focus on detailing the research implications and explaining how you perceive the impact of your study.

It's essential that you use these spaces to highlight why the findings matter to you. As mentioned earlier, this impact should never be assumed to be understood. Rather, you should explain in detail how your initial motivation to conduct the research has been satisfied and how you might use what you have learned from the research in theoretical and practical terms.

Tailor to your audience

Research is partly about sharing expertise and partly about understanding your audience. Scientific knowledge is generated through consensus, and the more that the researcher ensures their implications are understood by their audience, the more it will resonate in the field.

A good strategy for tailoring your research paper to a particular journal is to read its articles for the implications that are explored in the research. Applied journals will focus on more practical implications while more theoretical publications will emphasize theoretical or conceptual frameworks for other scholars to rely on. As a result, there's no need to detail every single possible implication from your study; simply describing those implications that are most relevant to your audience is often sufficient.

Provide useful examples

One of the easier ways to persuade readers of the potential implications of your research is to provide concrete examples that are simple to understand.

Think about a study that interviews children, for example, where the methodological implications dwell on establishing an emotional connection before collecting data. This might include practical considerations such as bringing toys or conducting the interview in a setting familiar to them like their classroom so they are comfortable during data collection. Explicitly detailing this example can guide scholars in useful takeaways for their research design.

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What does "relevant research" in this case mean?

True, we still don’t have the acumen to achieve this, but there seems to be no insurmountable technical barrier preventing us from producing superhumans . The main obstacles are the ethical and political objections that have slowed down research on humans. And no matter how convincing the ethical arguments may be, it is hard to see how they can hold back the next step for long, especially if what is at stake is the possibility of prolonging human life indefinitely, conquering incurable diseases, and upgrading our cognitive and emotional abilities. What would happen, for example, if we developed a cure for Alzheimer’s disease that, as a side benefit, could dramatically improve the memories of healthy people? Would anyone be able to halt the relevant research?

What does the relevant research imply here?

• meaning-in-context
• word-meaning

• I added more context –  jack bang Commented Nov 24, 2016 at 6:57

Here relevant means:

correct or suitable for a particular purpose: plans to make schooling more relevant to life beyond school .

Cambridge Dictionary

So the relevant research is the reseach that will probably lead to the scientific advancements the author is referring to in the article.

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Something is relevant if it's appropriate or connected to the matter at hand. Relevant things are helpful and on point.

Relevant things are appropriate and make sense at that particular time. In the middle of history class, your teacher loves to get relevant questions: questions that have to do with the material. The teacher won't be thrilled to get a question about math: that's not relevant. You can also say a song or movie is relevant if it's connected to current events or issues people are talking about. When something is relevant, it just fits what is happening.

• adjective having a bearing on or connection with the subject at issue “the scientist corresponds with colleagues in order to learn about matters relevant to her own research” synonyms: applicable capable of being applied; having relevance germane relevant and appropriate pertinent having precise or logical relevance to the matter at hand see more see less antonyms: irrelevant having no bearing on or connection with the subject at issue digressive , tangential of superficial relevance if any extraneous , immaterial , impertinent , orthogonal not pertinent to the matter under consideration inapplicable , unsuitable not capable of being applied moot of no legal significance (as having been previously decided) show more antonyms...

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Whether you're preparing for a standardized test, hoping to improve your comprehension of reading assignments, or simply looking to increase your word knowledge, our lists of essential, high-frequency words will put you on the path to vocabulary success. Here are links to our lists in this collection: List 1 , List 2 , List 3 , List 4

A thorough survey of various textbooks, assignments, content area standards, and examinations yields the following list of words compiled by Jim Burke . You cannot expect to succeed on assignments if you do not understand the directions.

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• Open access
• Published: 29 August 2024

Attentional processes in response to emotional facial expressions in adults with retrospectively reported peer victimization of varying severity: Results from an ERP dot-probe study

• Klara Blauth 1 &
• Benjamin Iffland 1  

BMC Psychology volume  12 , Article number:  459 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Attentional processes are influenced by both stimulus characteristics and individual factors such as mood or personal experience. Research has suggested that attentional biases to socially relevant stimuli may occur in individuals with a history of peer victimization in childhood and adolescence. Based on this, the present study aimed to examine attentional processes in response to emotional faces at both the behavioral and neurophysiological levels in participants with experiences of peer victimization.

In a sample of 60 adult participants with varying severity of retrospectively reported peer victimization in childhood and adolescence, the dot-probe task was administered with angry, disgusted, sad, and happy facial expressions. In addition to behavioral responses, physiological responses (i.e., event-related potentials) were analyzed.

Analyses of mean P100 and P200 amplitudes revealed altered P200 amplitudes in individuals with higher degrees of peer victimization. Higher levels of relational peer victimization were associated with increased P200 amplitudes in response to facial expressions, particularly angry and disgusted facial expressions. Hierarchical regression analyses showed no evidence for an influence of peer victimization experiences on reaction times or P100 amplitudes in response to the different emotions.

Cortical findings suggest that individuals with higher levels of peer victimization mobilize more attentional resources when confronted with negative emotional social stimuli. Peer victimization experiences in childhood and adolescence appear to influence cortical processes into adulthood.

Peer Review reports

People perceive stimuli in their environment with varying intensity and speed. Shifting attention toward or away from certain stimuli allows for filtering of environmental stimuli and is influenced by the individual relevance of a stimulus (e.g., [ 1 ]). Following this, studies of attentional processes in healthy populations show that emotional, and especially potentially threatening stimuli, elicit altered attentional processes compared to neutral stimuli [ 2 , 3 ]. Accordingly, attentional biases towards threatening stimuli may, on the one hand, reflect increased vigilance for relevant stimuli. In this context, an increased vigilance represents an adaptive modification, as it allows people to respond to the most relevant stimuli [ 1 , 4 ]. On the other hand, some studies have found attentional avoidance in non-clinical populations, which has been interpreted as a strategy for regulating emotions in response to mildly threatening, non-action-relevant stimuli, and is therefore thought to be useful in the context of mood regulation [ 2 , 3 ]. Thus, attentional processes are shaped by stimulus characteristics, such as emotional content, and individual aspects, and can in turn influence both the perception and interpretation of stimuli or a situation. Attentional processes can be studied experimentally by analyzing both reaction times and cortical responses. Since attended stimuli elicit a more pronounced amplitude than unattended stimuli, the analysis of event-related potentials is suitable for the analysis of attentional processes [ 5 ]. In this context, early visual components such as the occipital P100 and P200 were considered relevant as they reflect basal and attentional processing with sensitivity to faces and emotional content [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ].

Attentional biases, which are found in certain groups of people, reflect the relevance of a particular stimulus to an individual and the resulting changes in attentional processes. Studies in anxious populations show evidence of attentional biases associated with potentially threatening stimuli (for reviews, see [ 11 , 12 ]). Evidence of altered attentional processes associated with negative stimuli has also been found in depressed samples (for an overview, see [ 13 ]). Because these biases toward threatening or mood-congruent stimuli can influence perception and behavior, attentional biases are thought to be relevant to the development and maintenance of mental illness (for review, see [ 12 ]). In addition to an association between attentional biases and psychopathology, study findings also suggest altered attentional processes in individuals with experiences of maltreatment in childhood and adolescence, both by caregivers (i.e., child maltreatment; e.g., [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ]) and in the peer context (i.e., peer victimization; e.g., [ 19 , 20 ]).

Experiences of relational peer victimization in childhood and adolescence refer to experiences in which individuals are excluded from a peer group, experience rejection, or are ignored by peers [ 21 , 22 ]. Studies have shown that experiences of peer victimization are associated with lower social functioning and greater risk for several mental disorders, including anxiety, depression, or substance use disorders [ 23 , 24 , 25 ]. More frequent experiences of peer victimization have been shown to be associated with more severe outcomes in terms of psychopathology [ 24 , 25 ]. These findings have led numerous studies to address possible processes that may mediate between peer victimization experiences and psychopathology, and thus attentional processes have been examined at both the behavioral and cortical levels in individuals with experiences of peer maltreatment [ 19 , 20 , 26 , 27 ]. At the behavioral level, altered attentional processes related to negative or potentially threatening stimuli have been found in the context of peer victimization [ 19 , 20 ]. After applying a social conditioning task, Iffland and Neuner [ 20 ] analyzed reaction times in a dot-probe task as well as an emotional Stroop task and found altered attentional processes in response to neutral faces that were previously conditioned negatively and neutrally in participants with higher levels of peer victimization experiences. However, behavioral findings are inconclusive, as both attentional avoidance of threatening stimuli (e.g., [ 19 ]) and faster orienting processes to negative stimuli (e.g., sad stimuli; [ 28 ]) have been suggested in peer victimized participants. Stimulus choice and paradigm appear to have a critical influence on behavioral outcomes in the context of peer victimization experiences.

Subsequently, analysis of event-related potentials (ERPs) provides a more detailed analysis of attentional processes. In the context of maltreatment, studies indicate an altered P100 amplitude in affected individuals [ 29 , 30 , 31 ]. Using a selective attention paradigm, Pollak and Tolley-Schell [ 31 ] found evidence of increased P100 amplitude in response to angry faces in children with a history of physical violence. Combined with faster reaction times on valid anger trials, the results suggest an increased salience of anger in children with experiences of physical abuse, which may subsequently lead to a facilitated motor response [ 31 ]. Following the findings of P100 amplitude changes in maltreated individuals, Iffland et al. [ 26 ] found an increased P100 amplitude in response to previously negative and neutral conditioned neutral faces in depressed participants with a history of relational peer victimization, which was interpreted as a sign of increased selective attention to interpersonal information [ 26 ]. Although this contrasts with the finding of no group differences in P100 amplitude in response to emotional faces in young children with experiences of violence [ 32 ], the various study findings suggest a more pronounced P100 amplitude in people with a history of maltreatment. In addition to the P100, the P200 has also been associated with early visual attention and sensitivity to the emotional content of a stimulus [ 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ]. Studies suggest P200 modulation in the presentation of basic stimuli and in the anticipation and feedback processing of social stimuli, indicating an increased amplitude with respect to relevant stimuli [ 37 , 38 , 39 ]. Rossignol et al. [ 39 ] found an increased occipital P200 component in response to anger-neutral cues compared to fear-neutral cues in individuals with high levels of social anxiety. Here, the more pronounced amplitude was interpreted to be associated with an increased use of attentional resources in response to negative information with high motivational salience [ 39 ]. The results suggest that the P200 amplitude is associated with hypervigilance and increased allocation of attentional resources to potentially threatening stimuli. In addition, recent findings suggest a modulation of the P200 amplitude in peer victimized participants. Panier et al. [ 40 ] found that adolescents who reported higher levels of peer victimization showed a reduced P200 amplitude in response to social reward. The P200 may be a promising ERP component in the context of peer victimization and social stimuli, given the sensitivity of the P200 amplitude in the context of individual relevance and recent evidence for altered amplitudes in peer victimized participants.

As previous reports on behavioral measures in particular are ambiguous and partly contradictory, the current study aims to extend the existing literature on attentional biases by including the assessment of cortical processes (i.e., event-related potentials). Physiological studies suggest an increased sensitivity of cortical processes to social stimuli in certain groups of participants. Following initial findings on the relationship between peer victimization and cortical processes implicating differences in the perception and processing of stimuli, the present study focuses on the perception and processing of social stimuli. Thus, the present study is directly related to initial findings on altered processing of emotional [ 19 ] or social stimuli [ 20 , 26 ] in peer victimized participants and should allow for a more differentiated analysis of attentional processes in relation to different emotional social stimuli. The aim is to find out whether attentional processes related to relevant social information, such as certain emotional facial expressions, change with increasing experience of peer victimization.

To examine the relationship between peer victimization experiences and altered attentional processes at the behavioral and cortical levels, the facial dot-probe task was used [ 3 ]. For this, emotional facial expressions were combined with neutral ones. Emotional faces, including happy, angry, disgusted, and sad faces, were used to investigate attentional processes to positive as well as socially negative (i.e., angry, and disgusted faces) and non-socially negative (i.e., sad faces) stimuli. Angry and disgusted facial expressions were considered relevant to peer victimization experiences because these emotions can be interpreted as meaningful about one’s relationship with others and possible (potentially threatening) actions by others. Thus, angry facial expressions have an interpersonal character, as they can provide information about the behavioral tendencies of the counterpart [ 41 ], as well as disgusted facial expressions, as they can be triggered to ensure social order [ 42 , 43 ]. At the behavioral level, we expected an attentional bias toward potentially threatening stimuli (angry and disgusted faces) in participants with higher levels of experienced peer victimization. At the cortical level, based on findings related to maltreatment and social exclusion [ 31 , 39 ], we expected a more pronounced mean amplitude for the P100 and P200 in individuals with more reported peer victimization experiences. As with the behavioral measures, we expected to find this hypervigilance in response to potentially threatening stimuli (angry and disgusted faces) in the context of peer victimization experiences, whereas the behavioral and cortical response to positive and sad facial expressions should be unaffected by the level of peer victimization experienced.

Participants

Participants were recruited through social media advertisements, flyers, and bulletins. In the laboratory, participants were informed about the conditions of participation, the procedure of an electroencephalography (EEG) measurement, and the financial compensation for participation. Each participant was required to give prior informed consent to participate in the study. Inclusion criteria were an age between 18 and 65 years and sufficient knowledge of the German language to understand the questionnaires and instructions. In addition, normal vision was required to participate in the study. There were no other exclusion criteria. The procedure was approved by the Ethics Committee of Bielefeld University.

Information on general sociodemographic variables such as age, gender, education level, and marital status was requested, as well as potentially relevant variables in the context of the analysis of physiological data, such as smoking, alcohol consumption, presence of epilepsy, and medication. A total of 67 people participated in the study and data from 60 people were included in the final sample. The relevant sociodemographic and psychopathological characteristics of the 60 participants included in both the behavioral and physiological analyses are presented in Table  1 .

Instruments

Symptoms of psychopathology.

General symptoms of psychopathology were assessed using the Symptom Check List-27 (SCL-27; [ 44 ]). Six subscales measure depressive, dysthymic, vegetative, agoraphobic, sociophobe symptoms, and symptoms of mistrust with a total score ranging from 0 to 108. In the present sample, the Symptom Check List-27 showed good internal consistency (Cronbach’s \(\alpha\) = .90).

To assess current depressive symptomatology over the past two weeks the German version of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI II; [ 45 , 46 ]) was used. The BDI II assesses the presence and severity of depressive symptoms using 21 items on a scale from zero (absent) to three (severely present). Based on the total score with a range from 0 to 63, symptom severity can be classified (no/minimal, mild, moderate, or severe depressive symptoms). For this sample, an acceptable internal consistency was found (Cronbach’s \(\alpha\) = .76).

Trait anxiety was assessed using the trait subscale of the State-Trait-Anxiety-questionnaire (STAI; [ 47 , 48 ]). There are 20 items with a scale from one (almost never) to four (almost always), resulting in a total score with a range from 20 to 80. Here, the STAI had excellent internal consistency (Cronbach’s \(\alpha\) =.91).

Experiences of child maltreatment and peer victimization

To examine experiences of relational peer victimization the Fragebogen zu belastenden Sozialerfahrungen (FBS (Adverse Social Experiences Questionnaire); [ 21 ]) was used. Different forms of relational peer victimization experiences that occurred during childhood (ages 6-12) and adolescence (ages 13-18) were measured retrospectively. There were 20 items in which participants were asked to indicate whether they had the experience in the first, second or both age periods. There is evidence that combining the two subscale scores into a total score is superior to subscales in capturing peer victimization experiences [ 21 ]. Therefore, this total score was used in all analyses. The total score can therefore range from 0 to 40. The questionnaire mainly asks about relational peer victimization, e.g. ’No one wanted to sit next to me in class’ or ’Other children or young people excluded me from their games or activities’. In this sample, the FBS showed an acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach’s \(\alpha\) = .76).

To assess retrospective experiences of child maltreatment, the German version of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ; [ 49 ]) was used. On five subscales with 28 items in total, the questionnaire measures experiences of maltreatment (physical abuse, physical neglect, emotional abuse, emotional neglect, and sexual abuse). Since the items are to be rated on a scale from 1 (never true) to 5 (very often true), the possible values for the total score can range from 25 to 125. The total score for the CTQ showed good internal consistency (Cronbach’s \(\alpha\) =.86).

Paradigm and procedure

The facial dot-probe task was used to examine attentional processes [ 3 ]. Inquisit 6 (Millisecond software) was used to carry out the experimental procedure. Each trial began with a fixation cross presented in the center of the screen for 500 ms. This fixation cross was then replaced by two images presented simultaneously for 500 ms (one on the right, one on the left side of the screen). There were both emotion-neutral trials (i.e., EN trials) and neutral-neutral trials (i.e., NN trials). In EN trials (80% of all trials), one of the two pictures was emotional (i.e., emotional facial expression) and the other was neutral (i.e., neutral facial expression). Thus, each emotion (anger, disgust, sadness, happiness) was presented in 20% of all trials. In NN trials (20% of all trials), both presented pictures were neutral. The presentation of the pictures was followed by the presentation of a gray dot. In EN trials, this dot replaced either the emotional stimulus (congruent trials) or the neutral stimulus (incongruent trials). In NN trials, the dot always replaced one of the two neutral pictures. In both types of trials, trial presentation was randomized and equally distributed across all combinations. The participants’ task was to indicate on which side (right or left) the dot was to be seen by pressing the ’E’ key for left and the ’I’ key for right. The dot was presented on the left side of the screen in 50% of all trials and on the right side of the screen in the other 50% of all trials. The emotional facial expressions consisted of four different emotions, each paired with neutral faces (sad, happy, angry, and disgusted facial expressions). The order of the trials as well as the selection of the individual emotions was randomized. The stimulus material was taken from the Radboud Faces Database [ 50 ]. A total of 50 pictures of 10 actors (five women, five men) were used, each actor with each emotional expression was presented four times (2 blocks of 100 trials). For each trial, two images of the same actor were used. Trials with angry and disgusted faces were combined for all further analyses (anger/disgust trials), so that there were three different EN trials in addition to the NN trials (anger/disgust trials, sadness trials, and happiness trials) (Fig.  1 ).

The experimental procedure for a congruent trials, including an overview of the valences included, and b incongruent trials

Data reduction and statistical analysis of behavioral data

As a BDI II score of 14 or more is considered to indicate mild depression [ 45 ], all participants with a BDI II total score greater than 13 were excluded from the analyses ( n =1). The reaction time data of the participants included in the analyses were adjusted in several successive steps, following the procedure of other studies [ 20 , 51 , 52 ]. All trials in which the probe position was misinterpreted (1.21% of all trials) were excluded from the reaction time data. Furthermore, all trials with a reaction time of less than 150ms or more than 2000ms were excluded (0.02% of all valid trials). No participant’s mean deviated more than 3 SD from the mean reaction time. In addition, all trials in which the reaction time deviated more or less than 2 SD from the average reaction time of each subject were excluded from the analyses (2.28% of all trials). For the analysis of attentional bias, three different index scores were calculated for each emotion (attentional bias score, orienting score, and disengaging score; [ 52 ]). To calculate the attentional bias score, reaction times in congruent trials were subtracted from reaction times in incongruent trials. In this process, attentional biases toward the emotional stimulus are revealed by positive scores; attentional biases toward the neutral stimuli would be revealed by negative scores. In order to allow for more differentiated analyses, the orienting score was calculated in addition to the attentional bias score. For this purpose, reaction times for congruent EN trials are subtracted from NN trials. This allows conclusions to be drawn about whether individuals shift their attention to the emotional stimulus more quickly. In addition, to investigate whether individuals have difficulties disengaging their attention from the emotional stimulus, reaction times on NN trials were subtracted from incongruent EN trials to calculate the disengagement score.

EEG recording and analyses

To record the EEG, 128 active electrodes were used (BioSemi Active Two System; www.biosemi.com ) with a Sampling Rate of 512 Hz. The positioning of the 128 electrodes was done according to the BioSemi position system, which was ensured by positions given by a cap. Furthermore, two reference electrodes (CMS; common mode sense active electrode, DRL; driven right leg passive electrode) were used ( www.biosemi.com/faq/cms&drl.htm ). EMG (VEOG and HEOG) electrodes and ECG electrodes were assessed for data preprocessing. Preprocessing was performed with BESA ( www.besa.de ). EEG data were re-referenced to the mean reference and filtered with a 0.10 Hz high-pass filter (6 dB/octave) and a 40 Hz low-pass filter (24 dB/octave). Segmentation was performed from 100 ms before image onset (baseline) to 1000 ms after stimulus presentation. Event-related potentials were analyzed. They were time-locked to the presentation of the faces. Eye movements were corrected using BESA’s automatic eye artifact correction [ 53 ]. Bad channels were identified by visual inspection and interpolated. As some participants ( n = 6) did not have acceptable data (conditions with less than 60% accepted trials), they were excluded from further analyses and were not part of the final 60 participants. On average, 4.1% of all sensors were interpolated. For the included subjects, on average, 0.03% of all trials were marked as artifacts and therefore excluded from further analyses. Electrodes were selected on the basis of maximum activity during the inspection of topographic maps with EMEGS ( http://www.emegs.org , [ 54 ]). In addition, the time windows used were selected based on visual inspection of the data. Thus, for the P100, the time window 70 - 110ms and a cluster of 10 occipital electrodes (PO5, PO7, PO9h, P7h, P7, PO6, PO8, PO10h, P8, P8h) were used. P200 amplitudes were obtained in the 160 - 240 ms time window using nine occipital electrodes (OI1, O1, PO3, POOz, Oz, OIz, OI2, O2, PO4). Since both angry and disgusted faces are considered relevant in the context of peer victimization, the mean amplitude for angry and disgusted faces was calculated (anger/disgust trials). Thus, the EN-trials consisted of anger/disgust trials, sadness trials, and happiness trials. Outliers were replaced using the winsorizing method [ 55 ] for each person’s mean amplitude for each ERP component and valence of the face stimuli. Mean amplitudes that deviated more than three standard deviations from the mean amplitude were replaced by the highest or lowest possible value within this range for each component and valence.

Statistical analyses

All statistical analyses were performed using R version 4.2.2 [ 56 ]. Sample sizes for multiple regression analyses were estimated using G*Power [ 57 ]. With an assumed medium to large effect size (Cohen’s f 2 = 0.25; [ 58 ]), with \(\alpha\) = 0.05, power = 0.95, and the planned inclusion of four predictors (age, gender, child maltreatment, and peer victimization), the estimated required sample size was 55 participants. Hierarchical regression models were calculated to analyze the unique influence of peer victimization experiences on the various index scores and mean P100 and P200 amplitudes. A p -value < .05 was considered significant for all analyses. In addition, all correlation analyses, and hierarchical regression analyses were adjusted using the false discovery rate (FDR) correction [ 59 ]. In addition to age, the total score on the CTQ was included in the first step to control for its influence on the various outcomes. As gender had no effect on the results, only the models without gender are reported. Models were also calculated using the total score of the STAI and the SCL-27 as a predictor. The predictors were not significant (all p > .05) and are therefore not reported. In the second and final step, the FBS total score was included in the model. Three different trial types were analyzed (anger/disgust trials, sadness trials, and happiness trials). There was no violation of the multicollinearity assumption (all tolerances \(\ge\) 0.75, all variance inflation factors \(\le\) 1.33). In addition, to analyze the unique cortical responses to the different emotional stimuli when significant associations were present, standardized residuals were calculated for each emotion, taking into account the physiological response to neutral stimuli, as this approach is considered more reliable than difference scores [ 60 , 61 , 62 ]. Therefore, separate regression analyses were calculated with the mean amplitude in neutral trials as the variable predicting the mean amplitude in anger/disgust, happiness, and sadness trials. Pearson correlations were calculated between the standardized residuals and the FBS total score.

Behavioral Data

Means and standard deviations for the different trial types and index scores are presented in Table  2 . In addition, Pearson correlation coefficients between peer victimization experiences and the three index scores can be found for each trial type in Table  3 , showing no significant correlation between behavioral data and peer victimization experiences (all p ’s > .05). The hierarchical regression analyses for anger/disgust trials showed no significant influence of peer victimization experiences on the attentional bias score ( \(\beta\) = -0.12, p = .400; final model: F (3,56) = 1.26, adjusted R \(^2\) = .01, p = .296), orienting score ( \(\beta\) = -0.20, p = .157; final model: F (3,56) = 3.16, adjusted R \(^2\) = .10, p = .032), and disengaging score ( \(\beta\) = 0.09, p = .540; final model: F (3,56) = 0.81, adjusted R \(^2\) = .00, p = .495). Similarly, there were no significant effects of peer victimization on attentional bias scores, orienting scores, and disengaging scores for sadness and happiness trials (for the regression analyses of the behavioral data, see Tables A1, A2, and A3 in the Supplementary Material).

The mean P100 and P200 amplitudes and standard deviations for each valence are shown in Table  4 . In addition, correlation analyses of peer victimization experiences and mean P100 and P200 amplitudes for each trial type are shown in Table  5 . The correlation analyses revealed a significant positive correlation between peer victimization and P200 amplitude in anger/disgust, happiness, sadness, and neutral trials (see Fig.  2 ).

P200 mean amplitude (with electrode cluster OI1, O1, PO3, POOz, Oz, OIz, OI2, O2, PO4) for the different trial types. To illustrate the relationship with peer victimization, this predictor was dichotomized (median split)

Hierarchical regression analyses for the mean P100 amplitude are shown in Table  6 . The regression models for anger/disgust trials (final model: F (3,56) = 1.54, adjusted R \(^2\) = .03, p = .213), sadness trials (final model: F (3,56) = 2.68, adjusted R \(^2\) = .08, p = .055), and happiness trials (final model: F (3,56) = 0.74, adjusted R \(^2\) = .00, p = .535) showed no significant relationship between peer victimization experiences and P100 mean difference amplitude.

Hierarchical regression analyses of P200 amplitude for the different trial types are presented in Table  7 . As shown, the results revealed a significant association between P200 amplitude and peer victimization in anger/disgust trials. However, the overall regression model was not significant (final model: F (3, 56) = 2.63, adjusted R \(^2\) = .08, p = .059). There was no significant relationship between peer victimization experiences and P200 amplitude in happiness trials (final model: F (3, 56) = 1.69, adjusted R \(^2\) = .03, p = .180). In addition, there was no significant effect in sadness trials (final model: F (3, 56) = 2.03, adjusted R \(^2\) = .05, p = .120), although peer victimization was a significant predictor in this model. Following the significant associations between peer victimization and the P200 across trial types, correlation analyses of peer victimization and the standardized residuals revealed a significant correlation for anger/disgust trials. Higher levels of peer victimization were associated with a more pronounced P200 amplitude in anger/disgust trials when the electrocortical response to neutral faces was considered (see Table  8 ).

Following on from previous findings of attentional biases related to peer victimization experiences and ambiguous and limited ERP findings in this context, the present study provides new insights into the behavioral and cortical responses to emotional facial expressions associated with peer victimization. The dot-probe task was used to analyze both behavioral (i.e., reaction times) and cortical (i.e., ERP) responses to emotional facial expressions of different valence. Correlation analyses and hierarchical regression analyses revealed a relationship between occipital P200 amplitudes and reported frequency of peer victimization experiences during childhood and adolescence. There was no relationship between reaction times and peer victimization experiences, or between the P100 amplitudes and peer victimization experiences.

The present results suggest a more pronounced occipital P200 amplitude in response to anger/disgust trials in participants with higher levels of relational peer victimization. Carretié et al. [ 33 ] showed a more pronounced P200 for negative stimuli preceded by a cue, suggesting sensitivity to negative visual information. Using source location analyses, the authors found the origin in the dorsal stream, which was found to be more activated in response to negative stimuli compared to neutral or positive stimuli [ 33 ]. The authors suggested that this activation is influenced by the action-relevant nature of negative stimuli. This specificity for negative cues seems to occur mainly in certain groups of individuals. Bar-Haim, Lamy, and Glickman [ 63 ] found a more pronounced occipital P200 amplitude in response to angry faces in anxious compared to non-anxious participants, which may indicate a greater amount of mobilized resources. Our results suggest a modulation of the P200 in the context of peer victimization experiences. This altered amplitude in response to potentially threatening and negative stimuli, suggesting a greater allocation of attentional resources to these stimuli, could be seen as a consequence of adaptive adjustment processes and the importance for motor activity [ 33 ]. These findings extend behavioral analyses of peer victimization, which already point to the presence of attentional biases for threatening stimuli [ 20 ]. In addition, the results suggest a more pronounced P200 amplitude in response to sadness trials in peer victimized participants. This is in line with findings of facilitated attention to sad facial expressions in individuals reporting higher levels of peer victimization [ 28 ]. In this study, facilitated attention of sad faces has been related to mood-congruency effects [ 15 , 18 , 64 , 65 ] indicating the relevance of sadness in the context of peer victimization [ 28 ]. Notably, the relationship between peer victimization experiences and enhanced processing of negative social stimuli has been found in adults for whom the victimization experiences occurred years ago. In this context, the persistent alteration in cortical processes may be increasingly associated with costs, as the originally threatening stimuli no longer pose an immediate threat, and the distorted attention may lead to a biased perception of the environment [ 66 ]. Following on from findings of altered attentional processes in anxious individuals [ 63 ], these cortical changes may represent a risk factor for the development of psychopathology. Further longitudinal research and studies including participants with and without clinical diagnoses would be needed to further investigate the relationship between peer victimization experiences, altered cortical processes, and psychopathology.

In addition, the results partially indicate that a more pronounced P200 amplitude in happiness trials is associated with higher levels of peer victimization experiences. The results suggest that the increased attention is not only related to negative stimuli, but to facial stimuli in general. This is also consistent with the finding of a positive correlation of P200 amplitude even in neutral trials. This is in line with previous reports of generalized attention processing of negative and positive stimuli in peer victimized individuals [ 19 ]. However, analyses show that this effect disappeared when additional predictors were included. Since no effects were found in the regression model, this finding should be interpreted with caution. It should be noted that the p -values in the regression analyses and in the correlation analyses analyzing the unique variance did not withstand the FDR correction and the overall models were not significant. In the multiple regression models, this is probably due to overfitting. However, the findings regarding potential threat are consistent across different analyses and are also evident when the cortical response to neutral stimuli was considered. Nevertheless, replication studies with larger samples are needed to confirm the findings.

Unexpectedly, there was no association between P100 amplitudes and the level of peer victimization experiences. Thus, the results are in contrast to the findings of Iffland et al. [ 26 ] and Pollak and Tolley-Schell [ 31 ], whose results indicate a modulation of P100 amplitude associated with maltreatment experiences, including peer-victimization. Pollak and Tolley-Schell [ 31 ] showed a more pronounced P100 amplitude in response to angry faces in maltreated children. As the P100 is primarily associated with very early basal processing and initial face processing [ 9 ], this finding, combined with our finding of increased P200 amplitude, suggests that peer victimization experiences modulated the cortical response later in this sample. The lack of a relationship with the processing of threatening stimuli may be related to the characteristics of the present sample. The level of experienced peer victimization in the present sample is lower than in comparable studies of peer-victimized adults (e.g., [ 20 , 28 ]). The findings suggest that hypervigilance to threatening stimuli at this very early stage of processing is more likely to be found in individuals with higher levels of experienced peer violence. Furthermore, the stimuli used in the present experiment were not embedded in a specific emotional context. In contrast to the experimental design of Iffland et al. [ 26 ], only emotional faces were presented without any further information. It cannot be excluded that the experimental design influenced the results in terms of cortical response. In spite of the null findings in the present study, the results of the above-mentioned studies suggest that the P100 is a potential marker for the effects of peer violence in relationships and that peer violence affects very early stages of cortical processing.

Regarding behavioral measures, no relationship was found between peer victimization and reaction times. Thus, the behavioral measures point in a different direction than the cortical measures and also contradict the findings of Iffland et al. [ 19 ] and Iffland and Neuner [ 20 ], who were also able to find attentional biases at the behavioral level in individuals with peer victimization experiences. The results may suggest that reaction time analysis is not sensitive enough to detect attentional biases in the present sample. Based on the EEG results, a bias in response to emotional facial expressions would have been expected. The stimuli used here are relatively basal compared to the dot-probe studies of Iffland et al. [ 19 ] and Iffland and Neuner [ 20 ], which presented emotional words or emotionally conditioned neutral faces. It is possible that these simple facial stimuli were not sufficient to reveal attentional biases at the behavioral level. Furthermore, the inconclusive results for ERP and reaction times are consistent with other studies showing divergent results for cortical and behavioral measures [ 63 , 67 ]. These findings raise questions about the reliability of the dot-probe task in measuring attentional processes on a behavioral level [ 68 ]. In a dot-probe study by Kappenman et al. [ 67 ] the authors found no attentional bias when analyzing reaction time, but analysis of event-related potentials revealed an attentional bias to threat. The authors argued that ERPs are more likely to capture rapid shifts of attention and that behavioral response is not sensitive enough because there is more time between stimulus presentation and response to the target stimulus [ 67 ]. Future studies should use other paradigms for the behavioral analysis of attentional biases. It remains open whether the behavioral results are due to the fact that the enhanced processing does not affect behavior, that the stimulus material was not intense or action-relevant enough, or that the dot-probe experiment was not sensitive enough to detect differences at the behavioral level. The findings also highlight the need for replication studies, as the results suggest that the experimental design may play an important role.

Some limitations should be considered when interpreting the results. It should be noted that medication and the presence of mental illness was only partially considered in the analyses. A total of 15% of participants stated that they had experienced a mental illness. It cannot be excluded that this influenced the results. However, potential effects were reduced by adjusting the reaction time and EEG data and by excluding participants with current higher levels of depressive symptoms from the analyses.

Another limitation is that the level of peer victimization experience was lower than in comparable studies of peer victimization (e.g.,; [ 20 , 28 ]). This limits the interpretation of the results and makes comparisons with other studies difficult. It cannot be excluded that the conflicting findings regarding behavioral and ERP outcomes are due to these factors. Future studies should include a more mixed sample, e.g., by including a group of patients.

For the analysis of the EEG data, trials in which subjects gave incorrect or delayed responses were included in the analyses. It cannot be excluded that this had an effect on the results. However, it can be assumed that this did not have a major impact, since the overall number of incorrect responses was low and an adjustment was made on the basis of outliers. Thus, it can be assumed that highly deviant cortical responses, e.g., due to not following the instructions, were excluded and did not influence the results.

Another limitation is that stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) was not varied. Thus, the target was always presented after 500 ms, making it unclear whether initial attention had already shifted. However, since ERP analysis allows one to capture early attentional processes, conclusions can be drawn about the early stages of the processes. Nevertheless, future studies should vary the SOA to allow more precise statements at the behavioral level and to analyze the processes in a more differentiated way [ 69 ]. Furthermore, the retrospective recording of life experiences from childhood and adolescence remains susceptible to bias [ 70 ]. However, the FBS is a questionnaire with high reliability and validity [ 21 ]. In the present sample, the FBS also showed acceptable internal consistency and can therefore be considered suitable for retrospectively capturing experiences of peer victimization.

Previous findings have suggested altered attentional processes in individuals with peer victimization experiences. The present study demonstrates altered physiological responses to emotional facial expressions in individuals with a history of peer victimization experiences. Specifically, individuals with higher levels of peer victimization experiences showed a more pronounced occipital P200 amplitude in response to facial expressions, especially in response to threatening faces. Thus, the results indicate an enhanced activation of attentional resources in response to negative stimuli. These findings suggest that peer victimization in childhood and adolescence may also alter cortical processes in the long term. The extent to which these changes may be related to the later development of psychopathology should be further investigated in future longitudinal studies.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Event-related potential

Electroencephalography

Symptom Check List-27

Beck Depression Inventory II

State-Trait-Anxiety-questionnaire

Fragebogen zu belastenden Sozialerfahrungen (Adverse social experiences questionnaire)

Childhood Trauma Questionnaire

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Acknowledgements

We thank Dana Martinschledde for her help with data collection, Philippa Specker for editing the manuscript, and all participants for their time.

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KB contributed to the conception and design of the study, data collection, statistical analyses, interpretation of results and drafted the manuscript. BI contributed substantially to the conception and design of the study, supervised the statistical analyses and interpretation of results, and revised the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted manuscript.

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Blauth, K., Iffland, B. Attentional processes in response to emotional facial expressions in adults with retrospectively reported peer victimization of varying severity: Results from an ERP dot-probe study. BMC Psychol 12 , 459 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01958-5

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• What Is Quantitative Research? | Definition, Uses & Methods

What Is Quantitative Research? | Definition, Uses & Methods

Published on June 12, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It can be used to find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalize results to wider populations.

Quantitative research is the opposite of qualitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio).

Quantitative research is widely used in the natural and social sciences: biology, chemistry, psychology, economics, sociology, marketing, etc.

• What is the demographic makeup of Singapore in 2020?
• How has the average temperature changed globally over the last century?
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Table of contents

Quantitative research methods, quantitative data analysis, advantages of quantitative research, disadvantages of quantitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about quantitative research.

You can use quantitative research methods for descriptive, correlational or experimental research.

• In descriptive research , you simply seek an overall summary of your study variables.
• In correlational research , you investigate relationships between your study variables.
• In experimental research , you systematically examine whether there is a cause-and-effect relationship between variables.

Correlational and experimental research can both be used to formally test hypotheses , or predictions, using statistics. The results may be generalized to broader populations based on the sampling method used.

To collect quantitative data, you will often need to use operational definitions that translate abstract concepts (e.g., mood) into observable and quantifiable measures (e.g., self-ratings of feelings and energy levels).

Note that quantitative research is at risk for certain research biases , including information bias , omitted variable bias , sampling bias , or selection bias . Be sure that you’re aware of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data to prevent them from impacting your work too much.

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Once data is collected, you may need to process it before it can be analyzed. For example, survey and test data may need to be transformed from words to numbers. Then, you can use statistical analysis to answer your research questions .

Descriptive statistics will give you a summary of your data and include measures of averages and variability. You can also use graphs, scatter plots and frequency tables to visualize your data and check for any trends or outliers.

Using inferential statistics , you can make predictions or generalizations based on your data. You can test your hypothesis or use your sample data to estimate the population parameter .

First, you use descriptive statistics to get a summary of the data. You find the mean (average) and the mode (most frequent rating) of procrastination of the two groups, and plot the data to see if there are any outliers.

You can also assess the reliability and validity of your data collection methods to indicate how consistently and accurately your methods actually measured what you wanted them to.

Quantitative research is often used to standardize data collection and generalize findings . Strengths of this approach include:

• Replication

Repeating the study is possible because of standardized data collection protocols and tangible definitions of abstract concepts.

• Direct comparisons of results

The study can be reproduced in other cultural settings, times or with different groups of participants. Results can be compared statistically.

• Large samples

Data from large samples can be processed and analyzed using reliable and consistent procedures through quantitative data analysis.

• Hypothesis testing

Using formalized and established hypothesis testing procedures means that you have to carefully consider and report your research variables, predictions, data collection and testing methods before coming to a conclusion.

Despite the benefits of quantitative research, it is sometimes inadequate in explaining complex research topics. Its limitations include:

• Superficiality

Using precise and restrictive operational definitions may inadequately represent complex concepts. For example, the concept of mood may be represented with just a number in quantitative research, but explained with elaboration in qualitative research.

• Narrow focus

Predetermined variables and measurement procedures can mean that you ignore other relevant observations.

• Structural bias

Despite standardized procedures, structural biases can still affect quantitative research. Missing data , imprecise measurements or inappropriate sampling methods are biases that can lead to the wrong conclusions.

• Lack of context

Quantitative research often uses unnatural settings like laboratories or fails to consider historical and cultural contexts that may affect data collection and results.

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If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioral avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalize the variables that you want to measure.

Reliability and validity are both about how well a method measures something:

• Reliability refers to the  consistency of a measure (whether the results can be reproduced under the same conditions).
• Validity   refers to the  accuracy of a measure (whether the results really do represent what they are supposed to measure).

If you are doing experimental research, you also have to consider the internal and external validity of your experiment.

Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics. It is used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses , by calculating how likely it is that a pattern or relationship between variables could have arisen by chance.

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