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Evolution of Operating System: An Overview

Want to know how Operating Systems (OS) evolved? From simple batch processing to advanced multi-tasking systems, OS has transformed significantly over the decades. This blog explores the Evolution of Operating Systems across four glorious generations of innovation and adaptation to computing demands. Read on to learn more!

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Operating Systems have evolved remarkably from their humble origins as basic task managers. Back then, computers were colossal machines, and their Operating Systems were rudimentary and constrained. Fast forward to today, and Operating Systems power sleek, intuitive devices, enabling seamless multi-tasking. The Evolution of Operating Systems is truly a triumphant story in the world of computing. 

This blog explores the fascinating journey of Operating Systems, from simple code-driven systems to the sophisticated platforms that drive our digital lives. Dive in and discover how the Evolution of Operating Systems has revolutionised our tech experience. 

Table of Contents

1) Evolution of Operating System 

a) First Generation (1945-1955) 

b) Second Generation (1955-1965) 

c) Third Generation (1965-1980) 

d) Fourth Generation (1980-Present) 

2) Benefits of Operating Systems 

3) Drawbacks of Operating Systems 

4) Conclusion 

Evolution of Operating System  

Operating Systems have progressed from slow and expensive to today's technology, exponentially increasing computing power at comparatively modest costs. Their journey started in 1940 with the beginning of the digital age and went through four generations of transformation. Let's look at the remarkable Evolution of Operating Systems. 

First Generation (1945-1955)  

Serial Processing began the Evolution of Operating Systems. It marked the start of the development of electronic computing systems as alternatives to mechanical computers. Because of the flaws in mechanical computing devices, humans' calculation speed is limited, and they are prone to making mistakes.  

Because there is no Operating System in this generation, the computer system is given instructions that must be carried out immediately. 

By the 1940s and 1950s, programs were incorporated into hardware components without using an Operating System. The challenges here are scheduling and setup time. The user logs in for machine time by wasting computational time.  

Setup time is required when loading the compiler, saving the compiled program and the source program, linking, and buffering. The process is restarted if an intermediate error occurs. Windows 95 and 98 are examples of Serial Processing Operating Systems. 

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Second Generation (1955-1965)  

GMOSIS, the first Operating System, was created in the early 1950s. General Motors, a key player in the automotive industry, ventured into the world of technology and created this Operating System for IBM Computer. Since it gathers all related jobs into groups or batches and then submits them to the Operating System using a punch card, the second-generation Operating System was built on a single-stream batch processing system. 

The MVS Operating System of IBM is an example of a batch-processing Operating System.  

Third Generation (1965-1980)  

Multi-programmed batched systems mark the third generation in the Evolution of Operating Systems. In this generation, the Operating System was designed to serve numerous users simultaneously.  

Interactive users could communicate via an online terminal with a computer, making the Operating System multiprogramming and multi-user.  

It executes several jobs that should be kept in the main memory, and the processor determines which program to run through job scheduling algorithms. Windows and IOS are examples of multi-programmed batched Operating Systems. 

Fourth Generation (1980-Present)  

The Fourth-generation Operating System was more commonly associated with Programming Languages often used for database-related tasks.  

In the fourth generation, the time-sharing Operating System and the Macintosh Operating System came into existence: 

a) Time-sharing Operating System: Time-sharing has significantly impacted the Evolution of Operating Systems. Multiple users can access the system via terminals simultaneously, and the processor's time is divided among them. Printing ports were required for programs with a Command-line User Interface, requiring written responses to prompts or commands. The interaction is scrolled down like a roll of paper. The User Interfaces directly with the computer via printing ports, like an electric teletype.

Few users shared the computer immediately, and each activity was completed in a fraction of a second before moving on to the next. The fast server may act on many users' processes at once by establishing iterations when they are receiving full attention. Multiple programs use time-sharing systems to apply to the computer system by sharing the system interactively. Unix Operating System is an example of a time-sharing OS. 

b) Macintosh Operating System: This was based on decades of research into graphical Operating Systems and applications for personal computers. The photo depicts a Sutherland pioneer program sketchpad that was developed in 1960. It employed many of the characteristics of today's Graphical User Interface (GUI), but the hardware components cost millions of dollars and took up a room.   

The initiative on massive computers and hardware improvements made the Macintosh commercially and economically viable after many research gaps. Many research laboratories are still working on research prototypes like sketchpads. It served as the foundation for anticipated products. Mac OS X 10.6.8 Snow Leopard is an example of Macintosh OS. 

Benefits of Operating Systems

Operating Systems have numerous benefits, including:  

1) Simplifying the communication between applications and hardware components 

2) Reducing development time 

3) Ensuring a standardised interface for users. 

4) Providing a user-friendly interface  

5) Allowing resource sharing among users 

6) Providing data security and enabling multi-tasking 

7) Managing software and hardware communication 

8) Allocating memory and controlling data flow 

9) Detecting and correcting errors. 

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Drawbacks of Operating Systems  

Operating Systems (OS) are essential for managing computer hardware and software resources but have drawbacks. Here are a few common ones: 

1) Some Operating Systems, like macOS and Windows, can be expensive to purchase and maintain. 

2) Programming and managing an OS can be complex, requiring specialised knowledge and skills. 

3) If the central OS fails, it can impact the entire system, leading to downtime and potential data loss. 

4) Operating Systems can be targets for malware and Cyber-attacks, requiring constant updates and security patches. 

5) Not all hardware and software are compatible with every OS, which can limit functionality and require additional resources to manage. 

6) Some Operating Systems can be resource-intensive, requiring significant memory and processing power. 

Conclusion  

From basic Command-line Interfaces (CLI) of the early days to today’s sophisticated multi-tasking platforms, the Evolution of Operating Systems reflects the remarkable advancement of technology. Understanding this progression provides exciting insights into how OS development has shaped modern computing and continues to drive efficiency, security, and seamless User Experiences across devices. 

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Frequently Asked Questions

The first Operating System utilised for real work was GM-NAA I/O. It was developed in 1956 by General Motors’ Research division for the IBM 704 computer. 

An Operating System's ability to evolve refers to its capacity to effectively develop, test, and introduce new system functions without interfering with service. 

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Our Programming & DevOps Blogs cover a range of topics related to Operating Systems, offering valuable resources, best practices, and industry insights. Whether you are a beginner or looking to advance your Operating System knowledge base, The Knowledge Academy's diverse courses and informative blogs have got you covered. 

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Introduction of Operating System – Set 1

An operating system acts as an intermediary between the user of a computer and computer hardware. In short its an interface between computer hardware and user. The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment in which a user can execute programs conveniently and efficiently.

An operating system is software that manages computer hardware. The hardware must provide appropriate mechanisms to ensure the correct operation of the computer system and to prevent user programs from interfering with the proper operation of the system. A more common definition is that the operating system is the one program running at all times on the computer (usually called the kernel), with all else being application programs.

Concerned with the assignment of resources among programs e.g. memory, processors, devices and informationoproutines. Similarly, the operating system has programs to carry out these tasks as with a traffic controller, scheduler, memory management module I/O program and file system.

History of Operating System

The operating system has been evolving through the years. The following table shows the history of OS.

Characteristics of Operating Systems

Let us now discuss some of the important characteristic features of operating systems:

• Device Management: The operating system keeps track of all the devices. So, it is also called the Input/Output controller that decides which process gets the device, when, and for how much time.
• File Management: It allocates and de-allocates the resources and also decides who gets the resource.
• Job Accounting: It keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs or users.
• Error-detecting Aids: These contain methods that include the production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error-detecting methods.
• Memory Management: It is responsible for managing the primary memory of a computer, including what part of it are in use by whom also check how much amount free or used and allocate process
• Processor Management: It allocates the processor to a process and then de-allocates the processor when it is no longer required or the job is done.
• Control on System Performance: It records the delays between the request for a service and the system.
• Security: It prevents unauthorized access to programs and data using passwords or some kind of protection technique.
• Convenience: An OS makes a computer more convenient to use.
• Efficiency: An OS allows the computer system resources to be used efficiently.
• Ability to Evolve: An OS should be constructed in such a way as to permit the effective development, testing, and introduction of new system functions at the same time without interfering with service.
• Throughput: An OS should be constructed so that It can give maximum throughput (Number of tasks per unit time).

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List of common Operating Systems

There are multiple types of operating systems each having its own unique features:

• Developer : Microsoft
• Key Features : User-friendly interface, software compatibility, hardware support, Strong gaming support.
• Advantages : Easy to use for most users, Broad support from third-party applications ,Frequent updates and support.
• Typical Use Cases : Personal computing, Business environment, Gaming.
• Developer : Apple.
• Key Features : Sleek, intuitive user interface, Strong integration with other Apple products, Robust security features, High performance and stability.
• Advantages : Optimized for Apple hardware, Seamless experience across Apple ecosystem, Superior graphics and multimedia capabilities.
• Typical Use Cases : Creative industries (design, video editing, music production), Personal computing, Professional environments.
• Developer : Community-driven (various distributions).
• Key Features : Open-source and highly customizable, Robust security and stability, Lightweight and can run on older hardware, Large selection of distributions (e.g., Ubuntu, Fedora, Debian).
• Advantages : Free to use and distribute, Strong community support, Suitable for servers and development environments.
• Typical Use Cases : Servers and data centers, Development and programming, Personal computing for tech enthusiasts.
• Developer: Originally AT&T Bell Labs, various commercial and open-source versions available
• Key Features: Multiuser and multitasking capabilities, Strong security and stability, Powerful command-line interface, Portability across different hardware platforms
• Advantages: Reliable and robust performance, Suitable for high-performance computing and servers, Extensive support for networking
• Typical Use Cases: Servers and workstations, Development environments, Research and academic settings

Functionalities of Operating System

• Resource Management: When parallel accessing happens in the OS means when multiple users are accessing the system the OS works as Resource Manager, Its responsibility is to provide hardware to the user. It decreases the load in the system.
• Process Management: It includes various tasks like scheduling and termination of the process. It is done with the help of CPU Scheduling algorithms .
• Storage Management: The file system mechanism used for the management of the storage. NIFS , CIFS , CFS , NFS , etc. are some file systems. All the data is stored in various tracks of Hard disks that are all managed by the storage manager. It included Hard Disk .
• Memory Management: Refers to the management of primary memory. The operating system has to keep track of how much memory has been used and by whom. It has to decide which process needs memory space and how much. OS also has to allocate and deallocate the memory space.
• Security/Privacy Management: Privacy is also provided by the Operating system using passwords so that unauthorized applications can’t access programs or data. For example, Windows uses Kerberos authentication to prevent unauthorized access to data.

The process operating system as User Interface:

• System and application programs
• Operating system

Every general-purpose computer consists of hardware, an operating system(s), system programs, and application programs. The hardware consists of memory, CPU, ALU, I/O devices, peripheral devices, and storage devices. The system program consists of compilers, loaders, editors, OS, etc.

Conceptual View of Computer System

Every computer must have an operating system to run other programs. The operating system coordinates the use of the hardware among the various system programs and application programs for various users. It simply provides an environment within which other programs can do useful work.

An OS is a package of some programs that runs on a computer machine, allowing it to perform efficiently. It manages the simple tasks of recognizing input from the keyboard, managing files and directories on disk, displaying output on the screen, and controlling peripheral devices.

Layered Design of Operating System

Fig. Layered OS

The extended machine provides operations like context save, dispatching, swapping, and I/O initiation. The operating system layer is located on top of the extended machine layer. This arrangement considerably simplifies the coding and testing of OS modules by separating the algorithm of a function from the implementation of its primitive operations. It is now easier to test, debug, and modify an OS module than in a monolithic OS. We say that the lower layer provides an abstraction that is the extended machine. We call the operating system layer the top layer of the OS.

Purposes and Tasks of Operating Systems

Several tasks are performed by the Operating Systems and it also helps in serving a lot of purposes which are mentioned below. We will see how Operating System helps us in serving in a better way with the help of the task performed by it.

Purposes of an Operating System

• It controls the allocation and use of the computing System’s resources among the various user and tasks.
• It provides an interface between the computer hardware and the programmer that simplifies and makes it feasible for coding and debugging of application programs.

Tasks of an Operating System

• Provides the facilities to create and modify programs and data files using an editor.
• Access to the compiler for translating the user program from high-level language to machine language.
• Provide a loader program to move the compiled program code to the computer’s memory for execution.
• Provide routines that handle the details of I/O programming.

I/O System Management

The module that keeps track of the status of devices is called the I/O traffic controller. Each I/O device has a device handler that resides in a separate process associated with that device. The I/O subsystem consists of

• A memory Management component that includes buffering caching and spooling.
• A general device driver interface.

Drivers for Specific Hardware Devices

Below mentioned are the drivers which are required for a specific Hardware Device. Here we discussed Assemblers, compilers, and interpreters, loaders.

The input to an assembler is an assembly language program. The output is an object program plus information that enables the loader to prepare the object program for execution. At one time, the computer programmer had at his disposal a basic machine that interpreted, through hardware, certain fundamental instructions. He would program this computer by writing a series of ones and Zeros (Machine language) and placing them into the memory of the machine. Examples of assembly languages include

Compiler and Interpreter

The High-level languages – examples are C, C++, Java, Python, etc (around 300+ famous high-level languages) are processed by compilers and interpreters . A compiler is a program that accepts a source program in a “high-level language “and produces machine code in one go. Some of the compiled languages are FORTRAN, COBOL, C, C++, Rust, and Go. An interpreter is a program that does the same thing but converts high-level code to machine code line-by-line and not all at once. Examples of interpreted languages are

A Loader is a routine that loads an object program and prepares it for execution. There are various loading schemes: absolute, relocating, and direct-linking. In general, the loader must load, relocate and link the object program. The loader is a program that places programs into memory and prepares them for execution. In a simple loading scheme, the assembler outputs the machine language translation of a program on a secondary device and a loader places it in the core. The loader places into memory the machine language version of the user’s program and transfers control to it. Since the loader program is much smaller than the assembler, those make more core available to the user’s program.

Components of an Operating Systems

There are two basic components of an Operating System.

Shell is the outermost layer of the Operating System and it handles the interaction with the user. The main task of the Shell is the management of interaction between the User and OS. Shell provides better communication with the user and the Operating System Shell does it by giving proper input to the user it also interprets input for the OS and handles the output from the OS. It works as a way of communication between the User and the OS.

The kernel is one of the components of the Operating System which works as a core component. The rest of the components depends on Kernel for the supply of the important services that are provided by the Operating System. The kernel is the primary interface between the Operating system and Hardware.

Functions of Kernel

The following functions are to be performed by the Kernel.

• It helps in controlling the System Calls.
• It helps in I/O Management.
• It helps in the management of applications, memory, etc.

Types of Kernel

There are four types of Kernel that are mentioned below.

• Monolithic Kernel
• Microkernel
• Hybrid Kernel

For more, refer to Kernel in Operating System .

Difference Between 32-Bit and 64-Bit Operating Systems

The fundamental goals of operating system are

• Efficient use: Ensure efficient use of a computer’s resources.
• User convenience: Provide convenient methods of using a computer system.
• Non interference: Prevent interference in the activities of its users.

Efficient use

An operating system must ensure efficient use of the fundamental computer system resources of memory, CPU, and I/O devices such as disks and printers. Poor efficiency can result if a program does not use a resource allocated to it. Efficient use of resources can be obtained by monitoring use of resources and performing corrective actions when necessary. However, monitoring use of resources increases the overhead, which lowers efficiency of use. In practice, operating systems that emphasize efficient use limit their overhead by either restricting their focus to efficiency of a few important resources, like the CPU and the memory, or by not monitoring the use of resources at all, and instead handling user programs and resources in a manner that guarantees high efficiency.

User convenience

In the early days of computing, user convenience was synonymous with bare necessity—the mere ability to execute a program written in a higher level language was considered adequate. Experience with early operating systems led to demands for better service, which in those days meant only fast response to a user request. Other facets of user convenience evolved with the use of computers in new fields. Early operating systems had command-line interfaces, which required a user to type in a command and specify values of its parameters. Users needed substantial training to learn use of the commands, which was acceptable because most users were scientists or computer professionals. However, simpler interfaces were needed to facilitate use of computers by new classes of users. Hence graphical user interfaces (GUIs) were evolved. These interfaces used icons on a screen to represent programs and files and interpreted mouse clicks on the icons and associated menus as commands concerning them. In many ways, this move can be compared to the spread of car driving skills in the first half of the twentieth century. Over a period of time, driving became less of a specialty and more of a skill that could be acquired with limited training and experience.

Non interference

A computer user can face different kinds of interference in his computational activities. Execution of his program can be disrupted by actions of other persons, or the OS services which he wishes to use can be disrupted in a similar manner. The OS prevents such interference by allocating resources for exclusive use of programs and OS services, and preventing illegal accesses to resources. Another form of interference concerns programs and data stored in user files.

Advantages of Operating System

• It helps in managing the data present in the device i.e. Memory Management.
• It helps in making the best use of computer hardware.
• It helps in maintaining the security of the device.
• It helps different applications in running them efficiently.

Disadvantages of Operating System

• Operating Systems can be difficult for someone to use.
• Some OS are expensive and they require heavy maintenance.
• Operating Systems can come under threat if used by hackers.

OS (operating system) – this is how we call the absolute core of modern computing API which directly interacts between you and machine. Types of Operating System and its FeaturesDifferent types of operating systems have their distinct features, so we can choose the right one for different applications. Windows (widely used), macOS (high security level), Linux (flexible OS) and smaller systems/devices such as Android and iOS, it all depends on the requirements of what you need.

In a similar way like technology improves, operating systems will always have a part in managing jobs such as security and enhancing user experience. Operating systems are mostly about the way you use IT – even if not at a high level, as would have been required by developers or professionals. Few focus areas when picking OS are too, getting a good job done at the moment and all set for later tasks as well.

Frequently Asked Questions on Operating Systems – FAQs

Explain operating system.

The operating system can be explained as the intermediate, which works between the user and the system hardware so that the user can get a nice experience while using a system. Without an Operating system, there will be a lot of difficulties can be faced by the user while running a system.

What are the types of operating Systems?

The types of Operating systems are listed below. Batch Operating System Multi-Programming System Multi-Processing System Multi-Tasking Operating System Time-Sharing Operating System Distributed Operating System Network Operating System Real-Time Operating System

What is the importance of an Operating System?

The operating system is one of the most important parts of a Computer System. Without an Operating System, the system will not be able to work. As Operating System works as an interpreter between the user and the hardware part, which helps in the smooth functioning of the system.

What is an OS Structure?

Operating System structure is basically the model in which the system works. The structure of the operating system should be user-friendly, such that if any user having less knowledge about the system comes then he/she will not face any difficulties while running the system.

What do you mean by a process in Operating System?

A process can be simply defined as the instance of a computer. The process always includes the program code and its operations both. The process also includes the threads running in the computer system. It can be a single thread or a multiple thread.

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The Complete History of Operating Systems: Powering Personal Computing from Punch Cards to Mobile Apps

• by history tools
• March 26, 2024

Imagine a world without operating systems – where every interaction with a computer required entering streams of code just to load a program or access a file. Today‘s intuitive and visual software interfaces have not always existed. Underneath the ease of use of our modern devices lies decades of operating system innovations that made personal computing accessible.

This guide will journey through the key milestones that allowed operating systems to transform from strictly business-oriented tools in the 1950s into the slick, touch-ready platforms powering our smartphones. Learning this history helps illustrate how small changes over time can culminate in revolutionary capabilities. It also reveals the dedicated work of programmers and engineers that brought interactive interfaces and mobile-friendliness to the masses.

What is an Operating System and Why Does it Matter?

An operating system, commonly abbreviated as OS, is software that manages computer functions. It acts as an interface between computer hardware like the processor, memory, hard drives and the programs and applications being run by users. The OS allocates resources, handles input and output requests, and translates software instructions into instructions a computer chipset can execute.

Without an OS, a computer cannot load apps, display information, accept input, or function at more than the most basic level. Operating systems made personal computing devices and user interfaces possible by powering increasingly complex abilities decade over decade.

The Earliest Operating Systems (1950s-1960s): Managing Hulking Mainframes

Long before mouse pointers, windows, or touchscreens appeared, the earliest operating systems emerged to organize batch operations on room-sized mainframe computers from the 1950s and 60s. These pioneering OS managed queues of data processing and calculations coded onto punch cards and magnetic tapes.

Rather than direct interaction, early OS like GM-NAA I/O focused on prioritizing compute tasks submitted in large batches. They lacked a user interface beyond basic switches, print outs, and card readers. But by handling workflow and resource management, they allowed businesses and research institutions to derive value from mainframes despite limited interactivity with end users.

Other notable early OS:

• BESYS (Efficient programming of early scientific Bessemer convertor calculations like steel manufacturing)
• ATLAS Supervisor (Organized workflows for University of Manchester‘s groundbreaking transistor computer)

While arcane today, these systems pioneered foundations for scheduling processes and allocating hardware resources that still underpin modern OS design.

MINI COMPUTERS AND TERMINALS (1960s-1970s) – OS Diversity Begins

The 1960s saw computing power transition from isolated mainframe behemoths to somewhat smaller minicomputers with interactive terminals. This allowed multiple users to access and share computation via typed text commands in a terminal rather than solely batch processing jobs.

Operating systems evolved to enable resource sharing between multiple people via linked terminals, rather than just handling workflow within a single mainframe. Some milestones included:

Time Sharing: Programmers at Dartmouth College modified GE-635 systems to rapidly switch between users, allowing text-based interaction without dedicated assignment to just one customer.

CTSS: Compatible Time Sharing System (developed at MIT‘s Project MAC) became one of the first OS to natively support interactive usage at terminal screens.

This shift to multi-user systems seeded diversity as academia, businesses, and technology vendors began crafting custom OS tailored to their needs. General purpose computing with third party software was still rare. But roots had been planted for more varied operating systems as minicomputers opened access to more organizations.

PERSONAL COMPUTING EMERGES (1970s-1980s) – GUI and Multitasking

The 1970s miniaturization trend enabled genuine personal computers users could own themselves rather than timesharing terminal access. Complete systems like 1977‘s Apple II, 1981‘s IBM PC, and 1977‘s Commodore PET featured built-in keyboards, floppy drives, ports and monitors. The stage was set for OS that enabled average people to accomplish more than just terminal text commands.

Graphical User Interfaces Emerge

Visual displays and point-and-click control debuted allowing easier interaction than memorized text commands. Notable GUI milestones included:

• Xerox PARC: Alto experimental OS in 1973 pioneered WYSIWYG editors, overlapping windows, menus, mouse input and other GUI staples still common decades later.
• Apple Lisa OS: Inspired by Xerox, Apple‘s Lisa OS in 1983 brought GUI workflows tailored for business productivity rather than just engineering environments.

More Diverse Hardware and Software

As personal computers proliferated, third party operating systems arose trying to differentiate on factors like:

• Ease of Use: Apple Macintosh OS in 1984 prioritized simplicity with drag-and-drop manipulation dubbed "the computer for the rest of us."
• Price: Competitors like Digital Research‘s GEM GUI chased mainstream share via lower cost and supporting third-party software.
• Performance: IBM OS/2 aimed to outpace MS-DOS for multi-tasking, stability, and efficiency via features like virtual memory.

Specialization increased as new OS capabilities mirrored emerging hardware niches – from portable laptops to high powered graphic workstations.

The Rise of Windows, Mac OS, and Unix Distributions

By the late 1980s, a handful of players pulled ahead in the booming personal computing market:

• Windows : Microsoft created Windows to add GUI interactivity to MS-DOS, building an enduring dynasty.
• Mac OS : Apple drove GUI simplicity sought after by publishers, creative pros and education.
• UNIX Computing scientists leveraged UNIX for mission critical performance and cross-platform support eventually spawning Linux.

These pivotal OS underlie many modern platforms today from phones to laptops as computing kept evolving.

ENTER THE INTERNET AGE (Early 1990s)

The maturation of GUI OS eased personal computing enough for many to start benefitting – but applications still lacked interconnectivity. The 1990‘s internet explosion changed that. OS developers raced to enhance network compatibility and security as the web opened more avenues for communication and commerce:

• Windows added Internet Explorer : Windows 95 proved seminal by integrating dial-up connectivity and web browsing by default driving mainstream internet adoption.
• Web foundations expanded : Linux gained popularity by enabling high performance web servers and back-end infrastructure to fuel the dot com boom.
• Mac adjusted : After initial missteps dismissal internet services, Apple bounced back adding modern networking capabilities.

As the networked age took off, operating systems adapted to power uses ranging from browsing to eCommerce.

MOBILITY AND CLOUD COMPUTING (2000s)

Internet momentum encouraged OS innovation to continue marching beyond the desktop. Usage exploded on phones and wireless mobile devices creating fresh demands for convenience and portability. Key mobile OS milestones driving change included:

• iOS : Apple disrupted the mobile phone norm in 2007 by introducing a slick touch interface tailored to fingers over styluses.
• Android : Google backed Linux-derived Android starting in 2008 to champion app abundance and cost efficiency across devices.
• Cloud-ready : Existing desktop OS like Windows and macOS added ongoing support for cloud services, remote access, improved notifications and battery-optimizations.

Meanwhile, the cloud computing trend offloaded storage and number crunching from local devices to remote data centers. As hardware needs shifted, OS followed – especially in the massively important mobile domain.

MODERN ERA (2010s And Beyond)

Over six decades, operating systems enabled a staggeringly swift rise from punch cards to pocket computers. Today iOS and Android dominate handsets globally thanks to touch readiness. Meanwhile Windows, MacOS and Linux remain essential for productivity across desktops, servers, cloud infrastructure and laptops benefitting from decades more polish.

The stage is set for innovative new application scenarios as OS continue evolving:

• Wearables and AR/VR : Interactive glasses and augmented screens demand more perceptive context-aware assistance rather than legacy UIs.
• Touch gives way to voice and gestures : Natural language and motion controls replace typing and tapping to drive the next phase of intuitive interfaces.
• Embedded "smartness" spreads : Fridges, speakers, cars and more gain "smart" OS driving automation anywhere computation can enable convenience.

It has been over 50 years since the first specialized business computing OS moved beyond batch processing. Today operating systems power experiences reaching billions of people daily across phones, watches, laptops, televisions and even cars or appliances.

The seeds planted by early OS visionaries to increase access and interactivity continue flowering new possibilities at the intersection of software and hardware. The history keeps unfolding – with many of tomorrow‘s most beloved interfaces still waiting to be imagined thanks to ongoing foundation-laying by operating system architects.

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The Evolution of Operating Systems

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• Per Brinch Hansen  

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The author looks back on the first half century of operating systems and selects his favorite papers on classic operating systems. These papers span the entire history of the field from the batch processing systems of the 1950s to the distributed systems of the 1990s. Each paper describes an operating system that combines significant ideas in an elegant way. Most of them were written by the pioneers who had the visions and the drive to make them work. The author summarizes each paper and concludes that operating systems are based on a surprisingly small number of ideas of permanent interest.

P. Brinch Hansen, The evolution of operating systems. In Classic Operating Systems: From Batch Processing to Distributed Systems , P. Brinch Hansen, Ed.

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Hansen, P.B. (2001). The Evolution of Operating Systems. In: Hansen, P.B. (eds) Classic Operating Systems. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-3510-9_1

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• History of Computers

When we study the many aspects of computing and computers, it is important to know about the history of computers. Charles Babbage designed an Analytical Engine which was a general computer   It helps us understand the growth and progress of technology through the times. It is also an important topic for competitive and banking exams.

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What is a computer.

A computer is an electronic machine that collects information, stores it, processes it according to user instructions, and then returns the result.

A computer is a programmable electronic device that performs arithmetic and logical operations automatically using a set of instructions provided by the user.

Early Computing Devices

People used sticks, stones, and bones as counting tools before computers were invented. More computing devices were produced as technology advanced and the human intellect improved over time. Let us look at a few of the early-age computing devices used by mankind.

Abacus was invented by the Chinese around 4000 years ago. It’s a wooden rack with metal rods with beads attached to them. The abacus operator moves the beads according to certain guidelines to complete arithmetic computations.

• Napier’s Bone

John Napier devised Napier’s Bones, a manually operated calculating apparatus. For calculating, this instrument used 9 separate ivory strips (bones) marked with numerals to multiply and divide. It was also the first machine to calculate using the decimal point system.

Pascaline was invented in 1642 by Biaise Pascal, a French mathematician and philosopher. It is thought to be the first mechanical and automated calculator. It was a wooden box with gears and wheels inside.

• Stepped Reckoner or Leibniz wheel

In 1673, a German mathematician-philosopher named Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz improved on Pascal’s invention to create this apparatus. It was a digital mechanical calculator known as the stepped reckoner because it used fluted drums instead of gears.

• Difference Engine

In the early 1820s, Charles Babbage created the Difference Engine. It was a mechanical computer that could do basic computations. It was a steam-powered calculating machine used to solve numerical tables such as logarithmic tables.

• Analytical Engine 

Charles Babbage created another calculating machine, the Analytical Engine, in 1830. It was a mechanical computer that took input from punch cards. It was capable of solving any mathematical problem and storing data in an indefinite memory.

• Tabulating machine 

An American Statistician – Herman Hollerith invented this machine in the year 1890. Tabulating Machine was a punch card-based mechanical tabulator. It could compute statistics and record or sort data or information. Hollerith began manufacturing these machines in his company, which ultimately became International Business Machines (IBM) in 1924.

• Differential Analyzer 

Vannevar Bush introduced the first electrical computer, the Differential Analyzer, in 1930. This machine is made up of vacuum tubes that switch electrical impulses in order to do calculations. It was capable of performing 25 calculations in a matter of minutes.

Howard Aiken planned to build a machine in 1937 that could conduct massive calculations or calculations using enormous numbers. The Mark I computer was constructed in 1944 as a collaboration between IBM and Harvard.

History of Computers Generation

The word ‘computer’ has a very interesting origin. It was first used in the 16th century for a person who used to compute, i.e. do calculations. The word was used in the same sense as a noun until the 20th century. Women were hired as human computers to carry out all forms of calculations and computations.

By the last part of the 19th century, the word was also used to describe machines that did calculations. The modern-day use of the word is generally to describe programmable digital devices that run on electricity.

Early History of Computer

Since the evolution of humans, devices have been used for calculations for thousands of years. One of the earliest and most well-known devices was an abacus. Then in 1822, the father of computers, Charles Babbage began developing what would be the first mechanical computer. And then in 1833 he actually designed an Analytical Engine which was a general-purpose computer. It contained an ALU, some basic flow chart principles and the concept of integrated memory.

Then more than a century later in the history of computers, we got our first electronic computer for general purpose. It was the ENIAC, which stands for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. The inventors of this computer were John W. Mauchly and J.Presper Eckert.

And with times the technology developed and the computers got smaller and the processing got faster. We got our first laptop in 1981 and it was introduced by Adam Osborne and EPSON.

Browse more Topics under Basics Of Computers

• Number Systems
• Number System Conversions

Generations of Computers

• Computer Organisation
• Computer Memory
• Computers Abbreviations
• Basic Computer Terminology
• Computer Languages
• Basic Internet Knowledge and Protocols
• Hardware and Software
• Keyboard Shortcuts
• I/O Devices
• Practice Problems On Basics Of Computers

In the history of computers, we often refer to the advancements of modern computers as the generation of computers . We are currently on the fifth generation of computers. So let us look at the important features of these five generations of computers.

• 1st Generation: This was from the period of 1940 to 1955. This was when machine language was developed for the use of computers. They used vacuum tubes for the circuitry. For the purpose of memory, they used magnetic drums. These machines were complicated, large, and expensive. They were mostly reliant on batch operating systems and punch cards. As output and input devices, magnetic tape and paper tape were implemented. For example, ENIAC, UNIVAC-1, EDVAC, and so on.
• 2nd Generation:  The years 1957-1963 were referred to as the “second generation of computers” at the time. In second-generation computers, COBOL and FORTRAN are employed as assembly languages and programming languages. Here they advanced from vacuum tubes to transistors. This made the computers smaller, faster and more energy-efficient. And they advanced from binary to assembly languages. For instance, IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600, and so forth.
• 3rd Generation: The hallmark of this period (1964-1971) was the development of the integrated circuit.  A single integrated circuit (IC) is made up of many transistors, which increases the power of a computer while simultaneously lowering its cost. These computers were quicker, smaller, more reliable, and less expensive than their predecessors. High-level programming languages such as FORTRON-II to IV, COBOL, and PASCAL PL/1 were utilized. For example, the IBM-360 series, the Honeywell-6000 series, and the IBM-370/168.
• 4th Generation: The invention of the microprocessors brought along the fourth generation of computers. The years 1971-1980 were dominated by fourth generation computers. C, C++ and Java were the programming languages utilized in this generation of computers. For instance, the STAR 1000, PDP 11, CRAY-1, CRAY-X-MP, and Apple II. This was when we started producing computers for home use.
• 5th Generation:  These computers have been utilized since 1980 and continue to be used now. This is the present and the future of the computer world. The defining aspect of this generation is artificial intelligence. The use of parallel processing and superconductors are making this a reality and provide a lot of scope for the future. Fifth-generation computers use ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology. These are the most recent and sophisticated computers. C, C++, Java,.Net, and more programming languages are used. For instance, IBM, Pentium, Desktop, Laptop, Notebook, Ultrabook, and so on.

Brief History of Computers

The naive understanding of computation had to be overcome before the true power of computing could be realized. The inventors who worked tirelessly to bring the computer into the world had to realize that what they were creating was more than just a number cruncher or a calculator. They had to address all of the difficulties associated with inventing such a machine, implementing the design, and actually building the thing. The history of the computer is the history of these difficulties being solved.

19 th Century

1801 – Joseph Marie Jacquard, a weaver and businessman from France, devised a loom that employed punched wooden cards to automatically weave cloth designs.

1822 – Charles Babbage, a mathematician, invented the steam-powered calculating machine capable of calculating number tables. The “Difference Engine” idea failed owing to a lack of technology at the time.

1848 – The world’s first computer program was written by Ada Lovelace, an English mathematician. Lovelace also includes a step-by-step tutorial on how to compute Bernoulli numbers using Babbage’s machine.

1890 – Herman Hollerith, an inventor, creates the punch card technique used to calculate the 1880 U.S. census. He would go on to start the corporation that would become IBM.

Early 20 th Century

1930 – Differential Analyzer was the first large-scale automatic general-purpose mechanical analogue computer invented and built by Vannevar Bush.

1936 – Alan Turing had an idea for a universal machine, which he called the Turing machine, that could compute anything that could be computed.

1939 – Hewlett-Packard was discovered in a garage in Palo Alto, California by Bill Hewlett and David Packard.

1941 – Konrad Zuse, a German inventor and engineer, completed his Z3 machine, the world’s first digital computer. However, the machine was destroyed during a World War II bombing strike on Berlin.

1941 – J.V. Atanasoff and graduate student Clifford Berry devise a computer capable of solving 29 equations at the same time. The first time a computer can store data in its primary memory.

1945 – University of Pennsylvania academics John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert create an Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). It was Turing-complete and capable of solving “a vast class of numerical problems” by reprogramming, earning it the title of “Grandfather of computers.”

1946 – The UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer) was the first general-purpose electronic digital computer designed in the United States for corporate applications.

1949 – The Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC), developed by a team at the University of Cambridge, is the “first practical stored-program computer.”

1950 – The Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC) was built in Washington, DC, and it was the first stored-program computer completed in the United States.

Late 20 th Century

1953 – Grace Hopper, a computer scientist, creates the first computer language, which becomes known as COBOL, which stands for CO mmon, B usiness- O riented L anguage. It allowed a computer user to offer the computer instructions in English-like words rather than numbers.

1954 – John Backus and a team of IBM programmers created the FORTRAN programming language, an acronym for FOR mula TRAN slation. In addition, IBM developed the 650.

1958 – The integrated circuit, sometimes known as the computer chip, was created by Jack Kirby and Robert Noyce.

1962 – Atlas, the computer, makes its appearance. It was the fastest computer in the world at the time, and it pioneered the concept of “virtual memory.”

1964 – Douglas Engelbart proposes a modern computer prototype that combines a mouse and a graphical user interface (GUI).

1969 – Bell Labs developers, led by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie, revealed UNIX, an operating system developed in the C programming language that addressed program compatibility difficulties.

1970 – The Intel 1103, the first Dynamic Access Memory (DRAM) chip, is unveiled by Intel.

1971 – The floppy disc was invented by Alan Shugart and a team of IBM engineers. In the same year, Xerox developed the first laser printer, which not only produced billions of dollars but also heralded the beginning of a new age in computer printing.

1973 – Robert Metcalfe, a member of Xerox’s research department, created Ethernet, which is used to connect many computers and other gear.

1974 – Personal computers were introduced into the market. The first were the Altair Scelbi & Mark-8, IBM 5100, and Radio Shack’s TRS-80.

1975 – Popular Electronics magazine touted the Altair 8800 as the world’s first minicomputer kit in January. Paul Allen and Bill Gates offer to build software in the BASIC language for the Altair.

1976 – Apple Computers is founded by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, who expose the world to the Apple I, the first computer with a single-circuit board.

1977 – At the first West Coast Computer Faire, Jobs and Wozniak announce the Apple II. It has colour graphics and a cassette drive for storing music.

1978 – The first computerized spreadsheet program, VisiCalc, is introduced.

1979 – WordStar, a word processing tool from MicroPro International, is released.

1981 – IBM unveils the Acorn, their first personal computer, which has an Intel CPU, two floppy drives, and a colour display. The MS-DOS operating system from Microsoft is used by Acorn.

1983 – The CD-ROM, which could carry 550 megabytes of pre-recorded data, hit the market. This year also saw the release of the Gavilan SC, the first portable computer with a flip-form design and the first to be offered as a “laptop.”

1984 – Apple launched Macintosh during the Superbowl XVIII commercial. It was priced at $2,500

1985 – Microsoft introduces Windows, which enables multitasking via a graphical user interface. In addition, the programming language C++ has been released.

1990 – Tim Berners-Lee, an English programmer and scientist, creates HyperText Markup Language, widely known as HTML. He also coined the term “WorldWideWeb.” It includes the first browser, a server, HTML, and URLs.

1993 – The Pentium CPU improves the usage of graphics and music on personal computers.

1995 – Microsoft’s Windows 95 operating system was released. A $300 million promotional campaign was launched to get the news out. Sun Microsystems introduces Java 1.0, followed by Netscape Communications’ JavaScript.

1996 – At Stanford University, Sergey Brin and Larry Page created the Google search engine.

1998 – Apple introduces the iMac, an all-in-one Macintosh desktop computer. These PCs cost $1,300 and came with a 4GB hard drive, 32MB RAM, a CD-ROM, and a 15-inch monitor.

1999 – Wi-Fi, an abbreviation for “wireless fidelity,” is created, originally covering a range of up to 300 feet.

21 st Century

2000 – The USB flash drive is first introduced in 2000. They were speedier and had more storage space than other storage media options when used for data storage.

2001 – Apple releases Mac OS X, later renamed OS X and eventually simply macOS, as the successor to its conventional Mac Operating System.

2003 – Customers could purchase AMD’s Athlon 64, the first 64-bit CPU for consumer computers.

2004 – Facebook began as a social networking website.

2005 – Google acquires Android, a mobile phone OS based on Linux.

2006 – Apple’s MacBook Pro was available. The Pro was the company’s first dual-core, Intel-based mobile computer.

Amazon Web Services, including Amazon Elastic Cloud 2 (EC2) and Amazon Simple Storage Service, were also launched (S3)

2007 – The first iPhone was produced by Apple, bringing many computer operations into the palm of our hands. Amazon also released the Kindle, one of the first electronic reading systems, in 2007.

2009 – Microsoft released Windows 7.

2011 – Google introduces the Chromebook, which runs Google Chrome OS.

2014 – The University of Michigan Micro Mote (M3), the world’s smallest computer, was constructed.

2015 – Apple introduces the Apple Watch. Windows 10 was also released by Microsoft.

2016 – The world’s first reprogrammable quantum computer is built.

Types of Computers

• Analog Computers –  Analog computers are built with various components such as gears and levers, with no electrical components. One advantage of analogue computation is that designing and building an analogue computer to tackle a specific problem can be quite straightforward.
• Mainframe computers –  It is a computer that is generally utilized by large enterprises for mission-critical activities such as massive data processing. Mainframe computers were distinguished by massive storage capacities, quick components, and powerful computational capabilities. Because they were complicated systems, they were managed by a team of systems programmers who had sole access to the computer. These machines are now referred to as servers rather than mainframes.
• Supercomputers –  The most powerful computers to date are commonly referred to as supercomputers. Supercomputers are enormous systems that are purpose-built to solve complicated scientific and industrial problems. Quantum mechanics, weather forecasting, oil and gas exploration, molecular modelling, physical simulations, aerodynamics, nuclear fusion research, and cryptoanalysis are all done on supercomputers.
• Minicomputers –  A minicomputer is a type of computer that has many of the same features and capabilities as a larger computer but is smaller in size. Minicomputers, which were relatively small and affordable, were often employed in a single department of an organization and were often dedicated to a specific task or shared by a small group.
• Microcomputers –  A microcomputer is a small computer that is based on a microprocessor integrated circuit, often known as a chip. A microcomputer is a system that incorporates at a minimum a microprocessor, program memory, data memory, and input-output system (I/O). A microcomputer is now commonly referred to as a personal computer (PC).
• Embedded processors –  These are miniature computers that control electrical and mechanical processes with basic microprocessors. Embedded processors are often simple in design, have limited processing capability and I/O capabilities, and need little power. Ordinary microprocessors and microcontrollers are the two primary types of embedded processors. Embedded processors are employed in systems that do not require the computing capability of traditional devices such as desktop computers, laptop computers, or workstations.

FAQs on History of Computers

Q: The principle of modern computers was proposed by ____

• Adam Osborne
• Alan Turing
• Charles Babbage

Ans: The correct answer is C.

Q: Who introduced the first computer from home use in 1981?

• Sun Technology

Ans: Answer is A. IBM made the first home-use personal computer.

Q: Third generation computers used which programming language ?

• Machine language

Ans: The correct option is C.

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Basics of Computers

• Computer Abbreviations
• Basic Computer Knowledge – Practice Problems
• Computer Organization
• Input and Output (I/O) Devices

One response to “Hardware and Software”

THANKS ,THIS IS THE VERY USEFUL KNOWLEDGE

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