greek religion essay

Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Greek gods and religious practices.

Terracotta aryballos (oil flask)

Signed by Nearchos as potter

Bronze Herakles

Bronze mirror with a support in the form of a nude girl

Terracotta column-krater (bowl for mixing wine and water)

Attributed to Lydos

Terracotta kylix (drinking cup)

Attributed to the Amasis Painter

Terracotta Panathenaic prize amphora

Attributed to the Euphiletos Painter

Terracotta amphora (jar)

Signed by Andokides as potter

Attributed to the Kleophrades Painter

Terracotta statuette of Nike, the personification of victory

Terracotta lekythos (oil flask)

Attributed to the Tithonos Painter

Attributed to the Villa Giulia Painter

Attributed to the Nikon Painter

Terracotta stamnos (jar)

Attributed to the Menelaos Painter

Attributed to the Sabouroff Painter

Attributed to the Phiale Painter

Marble head of a woman wearing diadem and veil

Terracotta oinochoe: chous (jug)

Attributed to the Meidias Painter

Ganymede jewelry

Set of jewelry

Gold stater

Marble head of Athena

Bronze statue of Eros sleeping

Ten marble fragments of the Great Eleusinian Relief

Limestone statue of a veiled female votary

Marble head of a deity wearing a Dionysiac fillet

Marble statue of an old woman

Marble statuette of young Dionysos

Colette Hemingway Independent Scholar

Seán Hemingway Department of Greek and Roman Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2003

The ancient Greeks worshipped many gods, each with a distinct personality and domain. Greek myths explained the origins of the gods and their individual relations with mankind. The art of Archaic and Classical Greece illustrates many mythological episodes, including an established iconography of attributes that identify each god. There were twelve principal deities in the Greek pantheon. Foremost was Zeus, the sky god and father of the gods, to whom the ox and the oak tree were sacred; his two brothers, Hades and Poseidon, reigned over the Underworld and the sea, respectively. Hera, Zeus’s sister and wife, was queen of the gods; she is frequently depicted wearing a tall crown, or polos. Wise Athena, the patron goddess of Athens ( 1996.178 ), who typically appears in full armor with her aegis (a goatskin with a snaky fringe), helmet, and spear ( 07.286.79 ), was also the patroness of weaving and carpentry. The owl and the olive tree were sacred to her. Youthful Apollo ( 53.224 ), who is often represented with the kithara , was the god of music and prophecy. Judging from his many cult sites, he was one of the most important gods in Greek religion. His main sanctuary at Delphi, where Greeks came to ask questions of the oracle, was considered to be the center of the universe ( 63.11.6 ). Apollo’s twin sister Artemis, patroness of hunting, often carried a bow and quiver. Hermes ( 25.78.2 ), with his winged sandals and elaborate herald’s staff, the kerykeion, was the messenger god. Other important deities were Aphrodite, the goddess of love; Dionysos, the god of wine and theater ; Ares, the god of war ; and the lame Hephaistos, the god of metalworking. The ancient Greeks believed that Mount Olympus, the highest mountain in mainland Greece, was the home of the gods.

Ancient Greek religious practice, essentially conservative in nature, was based on time-honored observances, many rooted in the Bronze Age (3000–1050 B.C.), or even earlier. Although the Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer, believed to have been composed around the eighth century B.C., were powerful influences on Greek thought, the ancient Greeks had no single guiding work of scripture like the Jewish Torah, the Christian Bible, or the Muslim Qu’ran. Nor did they have a strict priestly caste. The relationship between human beings and deities was based on the concept of exchange: gods and goddesses were expected to give gifts. Votive offerings, which have been excavated from sanctuaries by the thousands, were a physical expression of thanks on the part of individual worshippers.

The Greeks worshipped in sanctuaries located, according to the nature of the particular deity, either within the city or in the countryside. A sanctuary was a well-defined sacred space set apart usually by an enclosure wall. This sacred precinct, also known as a temenos, contained the temple with a monumental cult image of the deity, an outdoor altar, statues and votive offerings to the gods, and often features of landscape such as sacred trees or springs. Many temples benefited from their natural surroundings, which helped to express the character of the divinities. For instance, the temple at Sounion dedicated to Poseidon, god of the sea, commands a spectacular view of the water on three sides, and the Parthenon on the rocky Athenian Akropolis celebrates the indomitable might of the goddess Athena.

The central ritual act in ancient Greece was animal sacrifice, especially of oxen, goats, and sheep. Sacrifices took place within the sanctuary, usually at an altar in front of the temple, with the assembled participants consuming the entrails and meat of the victim. Liquid offerings, or libations ( 1979.11.15 ), were also commonly made. Religious festivals, literally feast days, filled the year. The four most famous festivals, each with its own procession, athletic competitions ( 14.130.12 ), and sacrifices, were held every four years at Olympia, Delphi, Nemea, and Isthmia. These Panhellenic festivals were attended by people from all over the Greek-speaking world. Many other festivals were celebrated locally, and in the case of mystery cults , such as the one at Eleusis near Athens, only initiates could participate.

Hemingway, Colette, and Seán Hemingway. “Greek Gods and Religious Practices.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/grlg/hd_grlg.htm (October 2003)

Further Reading

Burkert, Walter. Greek Religion . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985.

Hornblower, Simon, and Antony Spawforth, eds. The Oxford Classical Dictionary . 3d ed., rev. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Pedley, John Griffiths. Greek Art and Archaeology . 2d ed. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1998.

Pomeroy, Sarah B., et al. Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History . New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

Robertson, Martin. A History of Greek Art . 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975.

Additional Essays by Seán Hemingway

• Hemingway, Seán. “ Art of the Hellenistic Age and the Hellenistic Tradition .” (April 2007)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Greek Hydriai (Water Jars) and Their Artistic Decoration .” (July 2007)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Hellenistic Jewelry .” (April 2007)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Intellectual Pursuits of the Hellenistic Age .” (April 2007)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Mycenaean Civilization .” (October 2003)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Africans in Ancient Greek Art .” (January 2008)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Ancient Greek Colonization and Trade and their Influence on Greek Art .” (July 2007)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ The Art of Classical Greece (ca. 480–323 B.C.) .” (January 2008)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Athletics in Ancient Greece .” (October 2002)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ The Rise of Macedon and the Conquests of Alexander the Great .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ The Technique of Bronze Statuary in Ancient Greece .” (October 2003)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Cyprus—Island of Copper .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Music in Ancient Greece .” (October 2001)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Etruscan Art .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Prehistoric Cypriot Art and Culture .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Minoan Crete .” (October 2002)

Additional Essays by Colette Hemingway

• Hemingway, Colette. “ Art of the Hellenistic Age and the Hellenistic Tradition .” (April 2007)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Greek Hydriai (Water Jars) and Their Artistic Decoration .” (July 2007)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Hellenistic Jewelry .” (April 2007)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Intellectual Pursuits of the Hellenistic Age .” (April 2007)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Mycenaean Civilization .” (October 2003)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Retrospective Styles in Greek and Roman Sculpture .” (July 2007)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Africans in Ancient Greek Art .” (January 2008)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Ancient Greek Colonization and Trade and their Influence on Greek Art .” (July 2007)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Architecture in Ancient Greece .” (October 2003)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ The Art of Classical Greece (ca. 480–323 B.C.) .” (January 2008)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ The Labors of Herakles .” (January 2008)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Athletics in Ancient Greece .” (October 2002)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ The Rise of Macedon and the Conquests of Alexander the Great .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ The Technique of Bronze Statuary in Ancient Greece .” (October 2003)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Women in Classical Greece .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Cyprus—Island of Copper .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Music in Ancient Greece .” (October 2001)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961) and Art .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Etruscan Art .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Prehistoric Cypriot Art and Culture .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Sardis .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Medicine in Classical Antiquity .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Southern Italian Vase Painting .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Theater in Ancient Greece .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ The Kithara in Ancient Greece .” (October 2002)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Minoan Crete .” (October 2002)

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List of Rulers

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• Ancient Greece, 1000 B.C.–1 A.D.
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• Southern Europe, 2000–1000 B.C.
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• Ancient Greek Art
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• Balkan Peninsula
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• Dionysus / Bacchus
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• Mycenaean Art
• Mythical Creature
• Nike / Victory
• Plucked String Instrument
• Poseidon / Neptune
• Religious Art
• Satyr / Faun
• String Instrument
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Artist or Maker

• Achilles Painter
• Amasis Painter
• Andokides Painter
• Euphiletos Painter
• Kleophrades Painter
• Lysippides Painter
• Meidias Painter
• Menelaos Painter
• Nikon Painter
• Phiale Painter
• Sabouroff Painter
• Tithonos Painter
• Villa Giulia Painter

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Classics and Ancient History

Greek religion - essays, the following are the essays from 2019/2020 to give an idea of the types of question that might be asked in 2023/2024., assessed essay - term 1, deadline: thursday 5th december (week 10).

Please respond to one of the following essays:

Note - books marked with an @ are available online at the Library

‘Everything is full of Gods’ (Thales of Miletus). How true is this as a description of Greek religion?

J Bremmer Greek Religion (Introduction) 1999 &3

Buxton (ed.) Oxford Readings in Greek Religion (Introduction) 2000 &4

Burkert Greek Religion (Introduction) 1985 @

R. Dodds ‘The Religion of the Ordinary Man in Classical Greece’ in E. R. Dodds The Ancient Concept of Progress and other essays 1973.140-55 &3

Eidinow and J. Kindt Oxford Handbook of Ancient Greek Religion 2016 @

Eidinow, J. Kindt and R. Osborne Theologies of ancient Greek religion 2016 @

Gould ‘On making sense of Greek religion’ in P. Easterling and J. Muir (eds.) Greek Religion and Society 1987.1-35 &3

Gordon (ed.) Myth, religion and society 1981 &3

Kearns ‘Order, Interaction and Authority: ways of looking at Greek religion in M. Morford et al (eds.). Classical Mythology 2011 &3

Larson ‘A Land full of Gods: Nature Deities in Greek Religion’ in D. Ogden (ed.) Blackwell Companion to Greek Religion 2007 (56-70) @

Larson Understanding Greek Religion: A Cognitive Approach 2016 @

D. Nock ‘Religious Attitudes of the Ancient Greeks’ in A. D. Nock Essays on Religion and the Ancient World 1972 vol.2 161-88 &2

Ogden (ed.) Blackwell Companion to Greek Religion 2007 @

Powell (ed). The Greek World 1996.511-529 @

Price Religions of the Ancient Greeks (Introduction) 1999 @

Woodard (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Greek Mythology 2007 @

What role did the early poets have in shaping Greek religion?

Bremmer and A. Erskine (eds)The gods of ancient Greece: identities and transformations 2010 @

Dowden and N. Livingstone A Companion to Greek Mythology, 2011 @

Graziosi ‘Theologies of the family in Homer and Hesiod’ in E. Eidinow, J. Kindt and R. Osborne Theologies of ancient Greek religion 2016 (35-61) @

Kearns ‘Order, Interaction and Authority: ways of looking at Greek religion in

Larson Understanding Greek Religion: A Cognitive Approach 2016 (esp. 23-31) @

Morford et al (eds.). Classical Mythology 2011

Powell (ed). The Greek World 1996.511-29 @

To what extent did the concept of the ‘Twelve Olympians’ play an important role in Greek religious life?

Assman ‘Monotheism and Polytheism’ in S. I Johnston (ed). Religions of the Ancient World: a guide 2004 &3

Borgeaud The Cult of Pan in Ancient Greece 1988 &

Bruit-Zaidman and P. Schmitt-Pantel Religion in the Greek City 1992 @

Dowden ‘Olympian Gods, Olympian Pantheon’ in D. Ogden (ed.) Blackwell Companion to Greek Religion 2007 (41-56) @

Garland Introducing New Gods: the politics of Athenian religion 1992 &3

Larson ‘Greece’ in B. Stanley-Spaeth (ed.) Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions 2014.136-56 @

Larson Understanding Greek Religion: A Cognitive Approach 2016 (esp. Chapter One) @

Mikalson ‘Greece’ in S I Johnston Religions of the Ancient World: a guide 2004 &3

Mikalson Ancient Greek Religion 2010 @

Mikalson Athenian Popular Religion 1983&3

Parker Athenian religion: a history 1996 &5

Parker Polytheism and Society at Athens 2005 @

Which was the best way of understanding the will of the gods in Ancient Greece?

Bonnechere ‘Divination” in D. Ogden (ed.) Blackwell Companion to Greek Religion 2007 (145-160) @

Bowden Classical Athens and the Delphic Oracle 2005 &3

Eidinow Oracles, curses and risk among the ancient Greeks 2007 (OUP) @

Flaceliere Greek Oracles 1961 &2

Flower The Seer in Ancient Greece 2008 @

I. Johnston and P. Struck (eds). Mantike: Studies in Ancient Divination 2005 @

Morgan Athletes and Oracles 1990 (particularly good on origins of Delphic oracle) &3

Morgan “Divination and Society at Delphi and Didyma” Hermathena 1989 (147) 17-42 @

D Ogden Greek and Roman Necromancy 2004 &3

Parke Greek Oracles 1967 &2

Parker ‘Greek States and Greek Oracles’ in R. Buxton Oxford Readings in Greek Religion 2000.76-108 &4

Price ‘Delphi and divination’ in P. Easterling and J. Muir (eds.). Greek Religion and Society 1987.155-190 &3

Scott Delphi: a history of the centre of the ancient world 2014 @

C R Whittaker ‘The Delphic Oracle: belief and behaviour in ancient Greece – and Africa’ in Harvard Theological Review 1965 (58) 21-47 @

ASSESSED ESSAY - TERM 2

Deadline: monday 24th february (week 8).

The gods had to respond to human favours. Discuss.

Bremmer ‘Greek Normative Animal Sacrifice’ in D. Ogden (ed.) Blackwell Companion to Greek Religion 2007 (132-144) @

Burkert Homo Necans: the anthropology of ancient Greek sacrificial ritual and myth 1995 @

Burkert “Offerings in perspective: surrender, distribution, exchange” in T. Linders and G Nordquist (eds.) Gifts to the Gods 1987 p.43-50 &1

Detienne and J.-P. Vernant (eds). The Cuisine of Sacrifice among the Greeks 1989 &3

Dickie Magic and Magicians in the Greco-Roman world 2003 @

C Faraone Ancient Greek Love Magic 1999

A. Faraone and F. S. Naiden Greek and Roman animal sacrifice: ancient victims, modern observers 2012 @

Fontenrose The Delphic oracle: its responses and operations with a catalogue of responses 1981 &2

Gager Curse Tablets and binding spells from the ancient world 1999 @

Hitch and I. Rutherford (eds) Animal sacrifice in the ancient Greek world 2017 @

D. Hughes Human Sacrifice in ancient Greece 1991 @

I. Johnston Ancient Greek Divination 2008 @

Morgan Athletes and Oracles 1990 &3

Morgan “Divination and Society at Delphi and Didyma” Hermathena 1989 @

Maurizio “Anthropology and Spirit Possession: A reconsideration of the Pythia’s role at Delphi” JHS 1995 (115) 69-86 @

Ogden Magic Witchcraft and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman worlds: a sourcebook 2002 &3

Parker ‘Pleasing thighs: reciprocity in Greek Religion’ in C. Gill, N. Postlethwaite and R. Seaford ed. Reciprocity in Ancient Greece 1998.105-25 &1

Price “Delphi and Divination” in Greek Religion and Society Easterling P and Muir J V (eds.) 1985 p.128-154 &3

Pulleyn Prayer in Greek Religion 1997 @

Rosivach The System of Public Sacrifice in 4th century Athens 1994 &2

Scott Delphi and Olympia: the spatial politics of panhellenism in the archaic and classical periods 2010 &3

Scott ‘Displaying lists of what is (not) on display: the uses of inventories in Greek sanctuaries’ in M. Haysom and J. Wallenstein Current approaches to religion in ancient Greece 2011.239-52 &2

Spawforth The Complete Greek Temples 2006 &5

T. Van Straten ‘Gifts to the gods’ in H. Versnel ed. Faith, Hope and Worship 1981.65-151 &1

T. Van Straten ‘Votives and votaries in Greek Sanctuaries’ in A. Schachter ed. Le sanctuaire Grec 1992.247-84 &1

How did the concept of miasma affect Greek ritual practice?

Bendlin ‘Purity and Pollution’ in D. Ogden (ed.) Blackwell Companion to Greek Religion 2007 (178-189) @

Burkert Greek Religion 1985 @

Garland The Greek Way of Life 1990 &3

Garland The Greek Way of Death 1985 &2

Dowden Death and a Maiden 1989 @

Hamilton Choes and Anthesteria. Athenian iconography and ritual. 1992 &3

King ‘Bound to bleed: Artemis and Greek Women’ in A. Cameron and A. Kurht (eds). Images of Women in Antiquity 1993.109-27 @

C. Kurtz and J Boardman Greek Burial Customs 1971 &3

Larson Understanding Greek Religion: A Cognitive Approach 2016 (187-249) @

I Morris ‘Attitudes towards Death in archaic Greece’ Classical Antiquity (8) 1989.296-320 @

I Morris Death-Ritual and Social structure in Classical Antiquity 1992 @

Parker Miasma. Pollution and Purification in early Greek Religion 1983 &2

Sourvinou-Inwood ‘Reading’ Greek death to the end of the Classical Period 1995 &1

Vidal Naquet The Black Hunter: Forms of Thought and Forms of Society in the Greek World 1986 &3

Greek festivals were foremost religious in character rather than political or cultural. Discuss.

Alcock and R. Osborne (eds). Placing the Gods, Sanctuaries and Sacred Space in Ancient Greece 1994.199-216 @

B. Cavanaugh Eleusis and Athens: documents in finance, religion and politics in the 5th century BC 1996 &3

B. Cosmopoulos Greek Mysteries: the Archaeology of Ancient Greek Secret Cults. 2002 @

Eidinow Ancient Greek Religion: 'Embedded . . . and Embodied' in K. Vlassopoulos and C. Taylor (eds.) Communities and Networks in the Ancient Greek World 2015. 54-79 @

Hägg (ed.) The Role of Religion in the Early Greek Polis 1996 &1

Neils (ed.) Goddess and Polis: the Panathenaic festival in ancient Athens. 1992 &1

Scullion, '‘Nothing to do with Dionysus’: tragedy misconceived as ritual." The Classical Quarterly 2002, 52, 102-137 @

Winkler and F. Zeitlin eds. Nothing to Do With Dionysos? 1992 [see especially the Introduction and the essay by Goldhill; this is a highly influential but also a very controversial volume: use with care] &5

To what extent was Greek religion 'public and communal rather than private and individual' (Bremmer 1994, 1)?

Eidinow Ancient Greek Religion: 'Embedded . . . and Embodied' in K. Vlassopoulos and C. Taylor eds. Communities and Networks in the Ancient Greek World 2015. 54-79 @

Kindt Rethinking Greek Religion 2012 [see especially the introduction and chapter 1] @

See the important essays by Sourvinou-Inwood reprinted in R. Buxton (ed.) Oxford Readings in Greek Religion 2000 &4

6. ‘Man is a religious animal’ (Mark Twain). Discuss, using a Cognitive approach, how Greek religion agrees with this statement.

Boyer Religion explained: the evolutionary origins of religious thought 2001 @

Cresswell Culture and the cognitive science of religion 2018 @

van Eyghen, R. Peels, G. van den Brink New developments in the cognitive science of religion : the rationality of religious belief 2018 @

Watts and L. Turner Evolution, religion and cognitive science: critical and constructive essays 2014 @

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Article contents

Religion in ancient greece.

• Ivana Petrovic Ivana Petrovic Department of Classics, University of Virginia
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.63
• Published online: 29 May 2020

Ancient Greek religion was a polytheistic religion without a book, church, creed, or a professional priestly class. Due to the extraordinarily rich regional varieties in cult, fragmentary evidence and conjectural interpretations of it, conflicting mythological accounts, and the span of time treated, not a single absolute statement can be made about any aspect of Greek religion and exceptions exist for every general rule stated here.

Since Ancient Greeks perceived all aspects of nature as either divine or divinely controlled, and all aspects of individual and social life were thought to be subject to supernatural influence, paying proper respect to the gods and heroes was understood to be a fundamental necessity of life. Since no aspect of individual or social life was separate from “religion,” scholars refer to Ancient Greek religion as “embedded.” 1

The closest Ancient Greek comes to the English word “religion” are the noun thrēskeia (“acts of religious worship, ritual, service of gods”) and the verb thrēskeuō (“to perform religious observances”). Basic components of religious worship were the construction and upkeep of divine precincts, statues, altars, and temples, the observance of festivals, performance of sacrifices, bloodless offerings and libations, prayer, hymning, and observance of ritual abstinences and purifications. The closest Greek equivalents to “belief” were eusebeia (“reverent piety,” “respect”) and pistis (“trust in others” or “faith”). 2 Both words could qualify a relationship between humans, as well as a relationship between humans and a supernatural entity.

Since the Ancient Greeks did not have authoritative or divinely sent books of revelation, there was no script telling them what or whom to believe in and outlining the reasons why. The Greeks did not have professional priests who preserved, interpreted, and disseminated religious norms. 3 However, Greek literature is brimming with gods, and the stories about the gods, which they (and we) call “myths,” were not only in all their texts, but everywhere around them: depicted on their pottery, painted on their walls, chiseled on the stones of their buildings. 4 In the public space, there were countless divine statues, and the temples, altars, sacred groves, and divine precincts were everywhere around them. Ancient Greeks learned about the gods by hearing, watching, and doing: by seeing their parents perform a sacrifice, by observing them as they prayed, swore an oath, or performed libations, by participating in processions, singing and dancing in the chorus, eating the sacrificial meat in the sanctuaries, and by drinking wine, the gift of Dionysus. Ancient Greeks had no immediate need for theodicy, for the gods could be either benevolent, or angry, and their benevolence was perceived as a sign that the worship the community offered was appropriate, whereas natural catastrophes, crippling defeats in wars, or epidemics were interpreted as manifestations of divine anger, provoked by some human error or misstep. 5 Ancestral gods and heroes and the traditional way of worshipping them formed the cornerstone of Greek religiosity.

• ritual purity
• first-fruit offerings
• polis religion
• eschatology
• cult of the dead
• Eleusinian Mysteries

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Insights into Ancient Greek Religion: Myth, Rituals, and Beliefs

This essay about ancient Greek religion explores the intricate tapestry of myth, rituals, and beliefs that shaped the civilization’s worldview. It examines the pantheon of Olympian gods, the significance of myths in explaining natural phenomena and human experiences, and the role of rituals in communication with the divine. Additionally, it discusses the Greeks’ beliefs about the afterlife and their enduring legacy in Western civilization. Through a lens of historical inquiry, the essay sheds light on the profound impact of ancient Greek religion on society, culture, and philosophy.

How it works

In the tapestry of ancient civilizations, Ancient Greece stands out as a beacon of culture, philosophy, and art. Central to the fabric of Greek society was religion, an intricate weave of myth, rituals, and beliefs that shaped every aspect of life for its citizens. Delving into the depths of ancient Greek religion reveals a fascinating panorama of gods and goddesses, rituals and ceremonies, and a worldview that profoundly influenced Western civilization.

At the heart of ancient Greek religion were the Olympian gods, a pantheon of deities residing on Mount Olympus. Need a custom essay on the same topic? Give us your paper requirements, choose a writer and we’ll deliver the highest-quality essay! Order now

Led by Zeus, the king of the gods, this divine family encompassed a myriad of personalities, each with their own domain and sphere of influence. From Athena, the goddess of wisdom and warfare, to Aphrodite, the embodiment of love and beauty, these gods and goddesses were both revered and feared by mortals, their actions shaping the course of human affairs.

The myths of ancient Greece were not merely stories but potent narratives that provided explanations for the mysteries of the natural world and the complexities of human existence. From the epic tales of the Trojan War to the adventures of heroes like Hercules and Odysseus, these myths served as a cultural touchstone, offering moral lessons and insights into the human condition. Moreover, they formed the basis of religious rituals and festivals, with dramatic performances and sacrifices honoring the gods and commemorating legendary events.

Rituals played a central role in ancient Greek religion, serving as a means of communication with the divine and fostering a sense of community among worshippers. From elaborate ceremonies at temples and shrines to private rituals conducted in the home, these practices sought to appease the gods, seek their favor, and ensure the well-being of individuals and the state. Sacrifice was a common ritual, with offerings of animals, fruits, and libations made to the gods in exchange for blessings and protection.

Belief in the afterlife was another fundamental aspect of ancient Greek religion, shaping attitudes towards death and the hereafter. The concept of Hades, the underworld ruled by the god of the same name, provided a framework for understanding the journey of the soul after death. While the Greeks believed in an existence beyond the grave, their views on the afterlife varied, with some envisioning a realm of eternal bliss for the righteous and others a gloomy realm of shadows for the wicked.

In conclusion, ancient Greek religion was a rich tapestry of myth, rituals, and beliefs that permeated every facet of society. From the heights of Mount Olympus to the depths of the underworld, the gods and goddesses of Greek mythology shaped the destiny of mortals and provided a framework for understanding the mysteries of the universe. Through rituals and ceremonies, worshippers sought to honor the divine, seek guidance, and ensure prosperity in this life and the next. Today, the legacy of ancient Greek religion endures as a testament to the enduring power of myth and the human quest for meaning in an ever-changing world.

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Theologies of Ancient Greek Religion

Corinne bonnet , université toulouse – jean jaurès. [email protected].

This is a challenging book stemming from a conference in Cambridge in 2012. It collects fourteen papers and an introduction and is augmented by 42 pages of bibliography and a precise index. “Greek religion” is addressed from a longue durée perspective, from Homer to Eusebius, from various angles (philosophy, historiography, poetry, comedy, tragedy, law, politics, art…), and with a wide range of evidence. The focus is on “theological ideas implicit as well as explicit within Greek writing and practice” (p. XV). In other words, does the concept of “theology,” or better, “theologies,” make sense for the study of Greek religion? Is there some benefit to using it, or rather risk? Each author questions the relevance of “theology” for a specific field, and the result is a polyphonic and stimulating volume. In the “Introduction,” Eidinow, Kindt, Osborne and Tor put theology in relation to plurality, to texts and objects, and explain what is at stake in the chapters, which are arranged in a chronological order. They expect “theology” to highlight patterns of thought that inform disparate contexts and illustrate both the unity and diversity of what we today call Greek religion.

Kindt addresses several questions that are raised by the use of the concept “theology” in modern scholarship. She provides an interesting analysis of Jane Ellen Harrison and the articulation between theology/myth and ritual. As for recent approaches, time has come for our colleagues across the Channel to forget the imaginary “Paris School” (or “French School”) and to stop reducing French-speaking scholarship on Greek religion to structuralist approaches of almost fifty years ago, and to the ‘polis-religion’. 1 Pages 20-21 are downright caricatures. Colleagues like Borgeaud, Calame, Jaillard, Pirenne-Delforge, Belayche, Georgoudi, Pironti, Brulé, etc. continue to publish valuable books and articles, based on a wide range of concepts, methodologies, and evidence, that are inexplicably (almost) ignored by Kindt—as the bibliography reveals. I nonetheless agree with the final assessment of the paper, that the many stories told about the gods have different status and authority. For sure, “Greek religion was a heterogeneous phenomenon, which included and embraced multiple religious stances” (p. 31).

Graziosi explores the “Theologies of the family in Homer and Hesiod” through the receptions, ancient and modern, of these two authors’ accounts on the gods, and focuses on the theme of divine conflict in the Theogony and in the Iliad 21. She shows that Homeric gods are to be taken seriously. 2 But are they really “fairly primitive” (p. 56), as the author contends, in comparison with human social structures? And is “the concept of leadership in a non- biological sense alien to the gods”? Zeus’ leadership is legitimated by his victory over the chaotic powers, and not only because he is Kronos’ son. 3 Nonetheless, violence and conflict are differently managed by men, who suffer ineluctably according to their destiny, while gods are able to dissolve easily the tensions with music and charis .

Gagné’s excellent paper focuses on stories and portraits of radical shifts of fortune, mainly the Cypselids’ cycle and Croesus’ fate. What is the limit of human action and how do gods take part in these episodes of collapse of power? Reward and punishment generate competitive discourses and interpretations, considered as question marks of the religious system. At the core of the analysis is a group of legendary gifts made by the Corinthian tyrants to the major Panhellenic sanctuaries, and the rewriting of human stories using divine agency. Tor moves from Heraclitus’ pronouncement on Apollo (“neither says nor conceals but gives a sign”) to pinpoint the kind of theology or theologizing in that paradoxical and puzzling statement on the Delphic god. The analysis deals with Heraclitus’ philosophical mediation and enquiry on the power of language, on human experiences of the divine, and on the very nature of dialectic.

Csapo provides a study on the “theology” of Dionysia and Old Comedy. Dionysos Eleuthereus is explored as a specific aspect of the god, in Attica, which encourages processions and theatrical performances that are characterized by transgressive humor and license, as features of “shared acceptance”, but also competition. “Theology” is not intended as a set of propositions about the nature of the god(s), but as a language expressed through specific experiences, the Dionysian parade and comedy, which enacted the god’s power. “Polytheism and tragedy” by Goldhill discusses Lewis Campbell’s commentary on Sophocles’ Electra . Campbell pretends that tragedy is “dominated by divine law: a scheme imperfectly comprehended but bearing the impress of the Supreme Disposer”. A Protestant monotheistic scheme is applied to Greek tragedy, built on polytheism. Campbell’s statement is traced back to a Victorian agenda, and to Christian theology, teleology and ethics. This monotheistic reading of Sophocles seeks to find a single, supreme authority for moral issues, whereas tragedy displays conflicts between divine forces and multiple forms of causality. The “polytheistic narrative structure” of tragedy enables the poet to depict a god acting as a moral authority or as a cruel and arbitrary entity.

Willey explores Greek thought on lawgivers and lawgiving, and the construction of their authority through human and divine interconnected agencies. In many cases, oracular consultation provides divine approval for legislation, while several lawgivers have a close relation to some specific god (for example Solon and Apollo), showing how malleable are the boundaries between these two categories. “Popular Theologies” are investigated by Eidinow, through the lens of “divine envy” ( phthonos ), which is an expression of unpredictability and immeasurability of divine gifts, with embedded agencies. The very notion of “popular theology” (drawn on aspects of “popular culture”) and its adequacy to the topic are however not sufficiently clarified. Is the “responsiveness to context and the changing circumstances” a feature specific to “popular theology”? Creativity is present in every aspect of the communication between men and gods, from the great civic ritual to the many different scales of social life. Moreover, multiple narratives (p. 214) do not reflect a “popular” process, but are inherent to polytheism both in top-down and bottom-up dynamics.

Osborne’s paper on “Sacrificial Theologies” exemplifies the “theological” stakes of sacrifices through the analysis of two cultic calendars (Kos and Mykonos). 4 Sacrifice is a language—a commonly admitted assessment—, which alludes both to the order of gods and men. Does the fact that gods appreciate this or that gift imply that they “are like humans” (p. 248)? A look at Nourrir les dieux? (eds V. Pirenne-Delforge, F. Prescendi, Liège, 2011) would have provided a more nuanced analysis. In “Theologies of statues in Classical Greek art”, Gaifman cautiously applies the concept of “theology” to artefacts and to worshippers’ perceptions of gods and religious experiences. However, in Plato, theologia also refers to authority and taxonomic narratives, not to “subjective” matters. “Theology” is here mobilized to sharpen our grasp of the complex relationship between visual culture and religion. 5 The images show that multiple options coexist in the art of representing the nature of the gods. In “The Gods in the Athenian Assembly”, Martin reflects on the role of religion in decision-making on sacred and non-sacred matters. While the existence of the gods in the city is taken for granted, their help and protection is required for each normative activity. Better than “at the periphery” (p. 299), the gods are in the background of the assembly. They do not directly interfere but create the conditions for the sake of the polis , leaving space for human decisions and responsibility.

Benitez analyzes “Plato and the secularization of Greek theology”. Moving from the distinction between theology and natural philosophy in Aristotle, he questions the position of Plato, and the implications of his switch from the plural oi theoi to the singular o theos . In “Providence and religion in middle-Platonism”, Boys-Stones analyses the account of the world made by the second-century Platonist Atticus and the role of religious concepts, especially pronoia , “providence”. Platonism, as the author concludes, assimilates all traditional deities into an inflection of monotheism. Finally, in “Narratives of continuity and discontinuity”, van Nuffelen highlights two closely intertwined issues: the rhetorical construction of narratives of continuity by ancient religions and philosophical groups, and the way in which modern scholarship constructs its own narratives of continuity or difference, both influenced by theological presuppositions. His brilliant essay focuses on notions like “revelation”, “pagan monotheism”, “polytheism”, “monotheism”, “belief”, and “reason” as markers of polarity versus coincidence of views.

To conclude, “Theology” is differently defined and mobilized by the contributors, an observation that makes clear the heuristic value of the concept, but also its ambiguity. If “theology” is “the kind of reflection that informs the representation of divinity in the various contexts of day-to-day worship and other contacts with the gods” (p. XV-XVI) and “the basic theological assumptions and issues that form the background to both literary and philosophical theorizing and to the range of religious practices known from ancient Greece” (p. XVI), it is difficult to exclude from consideration any discourse (made of words or images) on the gods as “theology”. Is such an all-encompassing notion actually useful? Does it enable substantial progress in comparison to well established notions, such as “representation(s)” or “conception(s)” (of the divine)? If “theology” is tackled as the key to gain access to “religious beliefs that have informed the representations and manifestations of the religious in Greek antiquities, but also the strategies in which such beliefs can be recovered”, I fear that it could be seriously misleading, because the juxtaposition of “beliefs” and “practices”, “theology” and “cult” runs the risk of (re)introducing a Christian-centric perspective on polytheism. If theologia is indeed a Greek word meaning “discourse on the gods” (Plato, Rep. 379a; first instance of the word), sometimes in the plural. theologiai (Aristotle, Meteor. II, 353 a 35), it is nevertheless very rarely attested. 6 The Greeks prefer to use theia pragmata , which emphasizes the pragmatic approach to the divine. They ignore the concept of “religion” and prefer nomizein tous theous , almost impossible to translate: “to cope with the gods according to the nomos (tradition)”. And when the Centaur Chiron teaches to his human pupils the founding principles of justice ( dikaiosyne ), he pays attention to three concrete elements: horkous, thysias and schemata Olympou ( Titanomachy , PEG , fr. 11 Bernabé), “the oaths, sacrifices, and layouts of the Olympus”. Such “indigenous” (emic) categories are hardly compatible with the binomial “theology”/“belief”. A more promising and relevant aspect of the whole question is the “broader conversation in ancient Greece about the nature of the divine and its availability to human knowledge ” (italics are mine), that is “theology” as a reflection on human access to knowledge on the divine. In other words an experimental “theology” involved in poetry and art, in ritual and philosophical theories, in performances and narratives, considered as fragments of an empirical, largely shared, always approximate, exploratory and offbeat expertise on the gods. Within such a framework, “inconsistencies” (or “disagreements”), noticed in some papers, are basically consistent; they are intentional variants, overlappings prone to investigate the cosmic labyrinth. “Theology” is about what people know but also ignore, about approaching the gods, while being conscious of an ontological gap. “Belief” is, in my view, definitely not an appropriate notion to express this kind of beating around the bush! The Greek speculative reflection on the divine, on its management, and on the communication with it goes far beyond this narrow category. It entails and engages many different and embedded aspects of social activities. The risk, by bringing “theology” and “belief” to the forefront, is to make Greek religion “like us”, to simplify and impoverish the incredibly rich otherness of polytheism.

The great variety of topics and issues addressed makes the book nonetheless very interesting, even if I felt uncomfortable with different interpretations. I am still dubious about the real benefit of the use of “theology” in Greek matters. To a certain extent, and especially if associated with the notion of “belief”, it seems to conflict with the very nature of polytheism. Instead of clarifying the Greek plural, pragmatic, and experimental approach to the divine, it tends to narrow our field of vision.

1 . On this point I disagree with the statement (p. 22) that “works written under the paradigm of polis religion have little to say about the structures of Greek religious beliefs, not to mention theology”. P. Schmitt Pantel’s book on the ritual and civic dimension of the sacrifices and the symposia , for example, disclaims such a point of view, once again based on “belief” and “theology” (P. Schmitt Pantel, La Cité au banquet , Rome 1992).

2 . For a similar perspective : G. Pironti, C. Bonnet (ed.), Gli dèi di Omero. Politeismo e poesia nella Grecia antica , Rome, 2016. Again, “beliefs” (p. 61) is not appropriate to grasp what is at stake in the relation between polytheism and poetry.

3 . See also p. 56 note 61: the gods are at the same time a family and a society ruled by a king; these two models coexist in the Iliad . The Assembly scenes clearly entangle both logics. Lucian has frequently put the gods on the stage as a family and as a city.

4 . For Cos, S. Paul, Cultes et sanctuaires de l’île de Cos , Liège, 2013, is worth being mentioned.

5 . See also H. Collard, Montrer l’invisible – Rituel et présentification du divin dans l’imagerie attique , Liège, 2016.

6 . A. Henrichs, “What is a Greek god?”, in J. Bremmer, A. Erskine (ed.), The Gods of Ancient Greece , Edinburgh, 2010, p. 21 considers it as “a perfectly good pagan word”; it is rather a “perfectly rare pagan word”.