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My Favorite Speeches for Rhetorical Analysis: 10 Speeches for Middle School ELA and High School English

Teaching rhetorical analysis is one of my absolute favorite units to complete with my students. I love teaching my students about rhetorical strategies and devices, analyzing what makes an effective and persuasive argument, and reading critical speeches with my students. Here is a quick list of some of my favorite speeches for rhetorical analysis.

I absolutely LOVE teaching rhetorical analysis. I think it might be one of my favorite units to teach to my high school students. There are just so many different text options to choose from. Here is a list of some of my favorite speeches to include in my rhetorical analysis teaching unit.

10 Speeches for Teaching Rhetorical Analysis

1. the gettysburg address (abraham lincoln).

Some notable things to mention in this speech include allusion and parallel structure. To make your analysis more meaningful, point out these devices to students and explain how these devices enhance the meaning of the text.

Teaching Resource : The Gettysburg Address Rhetorical Analysis Activity Packet

2. Lou Gehrig’s Farewell Speech (Lou Gehrig)

This speech is one that many of my athletes love to analyze, and it is an excellent exemplar text to teach pathos. And like The Gettysburg Address, it is short. This is another speech that you can read, analyze, and even write about in one class period.

When I use this speech in my class, I have students look for examples of pathos. Mainly, I have them look at word choice, tone, and mood. How does Lou Gehrig’s choice of words affect his tone and the overall mood of the speech?

3. I Have a Dream (Martin Luther King, Jr.)

In the classroom, it is important to point out the sermonic feel to the speech and also to have your students look for calls to action and pathos. Have your students look for tone, allusions, and word choice to help them notice these rhetoric expressions throughout it.

Teaching Resource : I Have a Dream Close Read and Rhetorical Analysis

4. Speech at the March on Washington (Josephine Baker)

This is another important speech that held a lot of importance for the changes that needed to be made in America. The speech is a shorter one, so in the classroom, it will not take as long to analyze it, and students can understand the significance of the use of rhetoric in a shorter amount of time than some other speeches.

When teaching this speech, I like to remind my students to search for devices that portray an excellent example of the pathos that is so present in this speech. Some of these devices could be mood, repetition, and diction.

5. Steve Jobs’ Commencement Speech (Steve Jobs)

In class, it is good to have your students annotate and analyze the speech just as they have done for the others. The organization of the speech will help them to notice the similarities and differences between each point Jobs makes.

6. Space Shuttle Challenger (Ronald Reagan)

This speech represents a strong sense of pathos as a movement to help the American people cope with loss after the deaths of the astronauts aboard the Challenger. It is another speech that is not too long, so it should not take a long time to both analyze and annotate the entire speech.

When teaching this speech in class, be sure to mention how pathos is the driving force behind the speech, through the tone and the diction. How does Reagan use emotion to focus on the astronauts as humans, rather than solely focusing on the tragedy?

7. The Perils of Indifference (Elie Wiesel)

This speech is a good one to teach because it both makes students question their own lives, but also how the world works. The speech relies on pathos, and a little ethos too, to get the audience to feel the full effect of the tragedy of the Holocaust and what the speaker went through. It is a long speech so it may take longer for the students to fully grasp all the details that make it such a persuasive speech.

When I teach this speech, I like to have students annotate every place they notice an example of pathos, and then have them explain why in their annotations this makes them feel an emotion. The same with the ethos, and then we can further analyze the rest together.

8. 9/11 Address to the Nation (George W. Bush)

This speech shows another example of the use of pathos in the midst of a tragedy. The President wanted to show the American people how much he was feeling for those lost in the tragedy of 9/11. It is not a long speech, but the amount of emotion within the words is significant for students to notice.

When teaching this speech, it is essential that students look very closely at each part of it, noticing each piece that reveals tone, mood, and other literary devices. How do the different devices add to the pathos of the speech?

FREE TEACHING ACTIVITY : September 11 Address to the Nation Sampler

Teaching Resource : September 11 Address to the Nation Rhetorical Analysis Unit

9. We are Virginia Tech (Nikki Giovanni)

This speech is probably the shortest speech on this list but provides one of the most emotional and pathos-filled rhetoric. This describes another tragedy that is spoken about with pathos to give the audience a safe feeling after such an emotional thing. Students can spend time analyzing the different devices that make the piece so strong in its emotion.

In the classroom, make sure your students make a note of the repetition, and what that does for the speech. Does it make the emotion more impactful? How does it make the audience feel like they are a part of something bigger?

10. Woman’s Right to the Suffrage (Susan B. Anthony)

This is another short speech that holds a lot of power within it. A lot of students will enjoy reading this to see how much the country has changed, and how this speech may have some part in influencing this change. It is a great speech to help teach logos in the classroom, and it will not take a long time to analyze.

Make sure your students notice, and they also understand, the use of allusions within the speech. These allusions help to establish the use of logos, as Anthony wants the use of American historical documents to show how logical her argument is.

Ready-For-You Rhetorical Analysis Teaching Unit

You might also be interested in my blog post about 15 rhetorical analysis questions to ask your students.

Teaching rhetorical analysis and speeches in the classroom is a great way to teach informational text reading standards.

Rhetorical Analysis Teaching Resources:

These resources follow reading standards for informational text and are ideal for secondary ELA teachers.

Rhetorical Analysis Unit with Sticky Notes
Ethos, Pathos, Logos: Understanding Rhetorical Appeals\
Rhetorical Analysis Mini Flip Book

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7 Powerful Speeches for Teaching Rhetorical Analysis in ELA

Reading Instruction

Our state assessment always features a famous speech, so it’s essential to prepare students for rhetorical analysis. Beyond the state assessment, rhetorical analysis helps students understand the constant barrage of persuasive media they encounter each day. With the right skills, students can assess sponsored content, commercials, and advertisements with a critical and wary eye.

For this reason, I’ve put together a list of favorite speeches for teaching rhetorical analysis!

This post this post may contain affiliate links . Please read the Terms of Use .

Getting Started with Rhetorical Analysis

Before I take students too far into rhetorical analysis, I like to brush up on rhetorical appeals with this quick card sort .

Then, before we dig into a complex text, we practice identify rhetoric in a less stressful piece. To take some of the stress out of rhetorical analysis, I will often start with a video.

First, “ The Danger of a Single Story ” is my favorite TedTalk ever! I even wrote an entire blog post about it, so there is no better place to start with rhetorical analysis!
“ Why city flags may be the worst thing you’ve never noticed ” is a less obvious choice. However, this is a fun TedTalk that appeals to a variety of learners. Plus, I’ve designed some creative extension activities so students can practice a variety of skills.
I also love Antony’s funeral speech from Julius Caesar . Reading this text and listening to an actor’s performance is a great way to consider tone in conjunction with rhetoric. Grab my free resource for Antony’s funeral speech !
Finally, “ Credo ” by Neil Gaiman is such a powerful essay! Written in response to a terrorist attack, this text is shorter than the others but packs an incredible punch. Watch Gaiman perform the piece here .

Leveling Up with Rhetorical Analysis

As students become more comfortable with rhetorical analysis, we move into more complex texts. However, by this point, students are comfortable with these 4 steps to pre-read any nonfiction text . With these strategies, students have the tools to tackle any text.

First, JFK’s Inaugural Address is a classic speech. Oftentimes students are familiar with his challenge to listeners, so this is a good opening. Plus, this speech is short enough that students can work through it in one or two class periods. Students can listen to it here .
Similarly, students are usually familiar with Patrick Henry’s call to “give me liberty or give me death,” so his Speech to the Virginia Convention is a fitting text for rhetorical analysis. In particular, this is a great text for teaching restatement.
Finally, students have often heard of Thomas Paine’s Common Sense , so The Crisis is a good complement to Henry’s work. As a bonus, this is a good piece for analyzing aphorism as a rhetorical tool.

More Complex Texts for Rhetorical Analysis

As our study of rhetorical analysis progresses, students become ready for more challenging texts. To help students attack these texts, we may use these rhetoric task cards or this editable SOAPSTone graphic organizer .

To my mind, “ Sinners in the Hands of an Angry Go d” is a classic speech for rhetorical analysis. No two students ever have the same reaction to this text, so it’s always a memorable lesson!
Additionally, FDR’s Four Freedoms Speech is a complex piece for rhetorical analysis. One of the challenges of this speech is its historical context. Its length is also another factor. Nevertheless, it’s a speech that continues to resonate with students.

Bonus Recommendations

While these two recommendations are not technically speeches, they still make for great rhetorical analysis.

First, “ Privileged ” by Kyle Korver engages students because they love basketball. They don’t expect the speech to lend itself to such powerful rhetorical analysis!
Second, “ Words and Behavior ” by Aldous Huxley is an incredibly dense essay. However, Huxley manages to criticize the use of rhetoric while also using rhetoric. By this token, this text pairs nicely with every other text on this list.

Kristi from Moore English #moore-english @moore-english.com

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Analyzing Famous Speeches as Arguments

Lisa Fink 01.20.19 Speaking

This date in history marks the inauguration of a number of U.S. Presidents. This is a good date to look at famous speeches and what they include and why.

After gaining skill through analyzing a historic and contemporary speech as a class, students will select a famous speech from a list compiled from several resources and write a piece that identifies and explains the rhetorical strategies that the author deliberately chose while crafting the text to make an effective argument. Their analysis will consider questions such as

What makes the speech an argument?
How did the author’s rhetoric evoke a response from the audience?
Why are the words still venerated today?

Nearly everything we read and hear is an argument. Speeches are special kinds of arguments and should be analyzed as such. Listeners should keep in mind the context of the situation involving the delivery and the audience-but a keen observer should also pay close attention to the elements of argument within the text. This assignment requires students to look for those elements.

Interested in digging deeper? Check out this lesson plan from ReadWriteThink.org .

6 Famous Historic Speeches Students Should Read Before Graduating

Nov 24, 2022

You know the saying that “those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it?” This quote is often paraphrased and attributed to different philosophers including Edmund Burke; however, the line is originally from Spanish-American philosopher George Santayana. The fact that the attribution is often misremembered is ironic considering the statement’s message! Clearly, r emembering and knowing the past is important, particularly when it comes to Famous Historic Speeches!

So much of our lives and those of our students were decided by people who lived long before us. In order to understand those decisions and find ways to support or subvert them, it’s important to have familiarity with US history and the famous historic speeches that mark those moments.

Additionally, public speeches are great mentor texts for studying rhetoric and the use of pathos, ethos, and logos . In examining these important historical speeches, students can analyze how speakers used emotions to convince their listeners to take action or what facts were used to support opinions that, for some, seemed rebellious in their moment. Through that analysis, students can apply their learning to their own persuasive writing. Who knows? One day our students may produce Famous Historic Speeches!

To that end, here are six famous historic speeches that every student should study before they graduate from high school!

Need help with Test Prep? Check out this FREE Pack of 3 Test Prep Activities to help students achieve success on standardized tests!

Table of Contents

6 Famous Historic Speeches

1. patrick henry’s “give me liberty” speech –.

This 1775 speech features the famous line “Give me liberty or give me death!” During a time of British oppression, Patrick Henry calls for war. The above iconic line is delivered after a discussion of whether or not peace was possible, and it demonstrates a passionate plea from Henry to leaders in colonial America. That line alone makes the speech one of the most Famous Historic Speeches. It is monumental and worthy of study, particularly for an examination of pathos, logos, and ethos .

Use this bundle of activities to complete a summary, ensure reading comprehension, and explore the use of rhetoric in the speech.

2. FDR’s “Infamy” Speech –

Franklin D. Roosevelt’s speech on December 8, 1941–the day after the bombing of Pearl Harbor by Japanese forces–drew the United States into the Second World War. His reasoning and call to war were necessary for a tumultuous time! Reading and writing activities for this speech might focus on parsing fact from emotion, particularly when the day before is considered through a historical lens.

This bundle of activities with a focus on emotions versus facts also encourages students to examine the author’s purpose. It will save you time and effort when teaching this speech in your History, English, or Social Studies classes.

Need help with teaching rhetorical analysis beyond Famous Historic Speeches? Click to read “ 5 Simple Steps for How to Do Rhetorical Analysis” for help!

3. Abraham Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Address” –

Delivered in Pennsylvania at Gettysburg National Cemetery during the Civil War, this speech by US President Abraham Lincoln is a key part of American history. From its opening line in reference to the signing of the Declaration of Independence–“Four score and seven years ago”–to its conclusion a short 10-lines later, the speech is impactful despite its brevity. As a result, studying the use of connotation to establish tone is an ideal way to analyze it.

Check out this bundle of activities with no-prep activities to guide your students in understanding Lincoln’s famous historic speech.

4. Elizabeth Cady Stanton’s “Declaration of Sentiments” – One of the most defining famous historic speeches for women’s rights!

famous historic speeches declaration of sentiments

This 1848 speech was given during the first women’s rights convention in Seneca, New York. The Declaration itself is so named for its similarity to the US Declaration of Independence . One idea for a lesson featuring this speech is to compare it to the wording of the historic document. You could begin such a lesson with these summary activities that focus on rhetorical analysis . In small groups, students could then break down the language that is shared between the two documents to discuss the speech’s effectiveness.

5. Sojourner Truth’s “Ain’t I a Woman? –

Delivered in 1851 at the Women’s Rights Convention in Ohio, Sojourner Truth’s speech focused on equality based on both race and gender. As an abolitionist and women’s rights activist, Truth’s speech is now well-known, but it took more than a decade after it was first delivered to gain widespread popularity. It is noteworthy though that there are discrepancies between the original text from 1851 and the reproduced version in 1863. This fact would make for a great lesson for any high school class.

Begin your study of the speech with these comprehensive resources for content, comprehension, and analysis .

6. Florence Kelley Child Labor Speech –

An activist for women’s rights and child labor reforms, Florence Kelley’s 1905 speech is a formidable addition to a list of famous historic speeches. Speaking to the National American Women Suffrage Association, Kelley advocated for an end to child labor in the United States. The speech provides ample opportunity to examine pathos, particularly with Kelley’s repetition of the line “While we sleep” to draw the listener into the experience of those little children who were not sleeping but rather at work in textile mills.

Use this activity to closely read Kelley’s speech . It includes a version of the speech in chunks to differentiate for the students in your class to write effective one-sentence summaries. Then with this step-by-step lesson, reading activities, templates (leading to an essay), and teacher examples , teaching rhetorical appeals is quick, easy, and stress-free!

famous historic speeches florence kelley

Why Teach These Famous Historic Speeches?

The value of studying any or all of these famous historical speeches cannot be understated. Reading and examining speeches from history provides a window into the speeches of today. The use of the same rhetorical devices, appeals, language and more are drawn from history. Recognizing and acknowledging history is vital to personal growth, the development of critical thinking, and having an impact on our society. The issues raised in each of these speeches may feel distant in terms of timing but in a lot of ways, the content remains as relevant today as it did when the words were first spoken!

WANT AN EVERYTHING DONE FOR YOU BUNDLE, WHICH INCLUDES 6 FAMOUS HISTORIC SPEECHES? CLICK BELOW!

Need more fun lessons and activities for the end of the year? Check out my store Kristin Menke-Integrated ELA Test Prep !

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Secondary Classrooms 6 Famous Acceptance Speeches to Celebrate Nobel Prize Day with Your Secondary Students

Eryn Reighard

Each year on December 10th, The Norwegian Nobel Committee awards the Nobel Peace Prize to a person or organization for their significant contributions to improving society. At the award ceremony, the winner gives a speech that is connected to their work..

Boost your ELA curriculum by introducing these famous acceptance speeches by Nobel Peace Prize laureates. These speeches will challenge your students to analyze figurative language, examine tactics of persuasive communication, and reflect on major historical events. Our guiding questions will have your students discussing important themes such as social change and revolution, war and peace, and freedom and equality.

“ Malala Yousafzai’s Nobel Peace Prize Lecture ” by Malala Yousafzai (8th grade)

In Pakistan,14-year-old Malala Youzafzai was attacked by the Taliban for fighting for girls’ education rights. After surviving the attack, Malala continued to advocate for the right to education. As the youngest Nobel Peace Prize laureate, Malala speaks about her dedication to ensuring world leaders provide equal access to education for women and girls.

After reading this speech, encourage students to reflect on the importance of equal access to education with Discussion Question 3, “In the context of the speech, what is the goal of education? Why does Yousafzai believe access to education is so important for all children? What can they accomplish with it?”

Elie Wiesel’s Nobel Acceptance Speech by Elie Wiesel (8th grade)

After surviving the Holocaust, author, professor, and human rights activist, Elie Wiesel, became known as the “messenger of mankind.” In Weisel’s 1986 Nobel Peace Prize speech, he highlights the importance of speaking up when facing oppression and his continued advocacy for human rights for all people.

Pair this speech with the informational text Elie Wiesel by the United States Holocuast Museum to provide additional information about Wiesel’s life and accomplishments. Have students discuss the impact that Wiesel had on the world by sharing his experiences from the Holocaust and why it is important to remember these tragic moments in history.

Nelson Mandela’s Nobel Peace Prize Lecture by Nelson Mandela (9th grade)

After 51 years of segregation and oppression, Nelson Mandela worked with fellow state leader F. W. Klerk to successfully end Aparteid in South Africa. Together in 1993, Mandela and Klerk won the Nobel Peace prize for their significant efforts in the Anti-Aparteid Movement. In his famous speech, Mandala speaks from the collective “we” to discuss major human rights issues such as racism, poverty, and war.

After reading Madala’s speech, have students complete Discussion Question 1, “In the context of the text, how do people create change? How might Mandela's speech contribute to future change? Cite evidence from this text, your own experience, and other literature, art, or history in your answer.” If you want students to work on their writing skills, have students write down their answers before starting the class discussion.

Barack Obama’s Nobel Lecture by Barack Obama (10th grade)

Barack Obama, the 44th President of the United States, won the Nobel Peace Prize for his work in strengthening international relations. In his acceptance speech, Obama speaks on appropriate actions in times of war and outlines his goals for achieving justice and global peace.

As students read, have them take note of how Obama believes the world can achieve peace. Have students complete Discussion Question 1, “Do you agree with Obama's views on war and peace? Why or why not? Which of Obama's points do you find most compelling in achieving peace? Do you think we can have peace without war?”

Martin Luther King, Jr Nobel Acceptance Speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. (11th grade)

Baptist minister and activist, Martin Luther King, Jr., became the most prominent leader of the Civil Rights Movement. King was known for encouraging nonviolent protests against racial injustices. In King’s 1964 Nobel Peace Prize speech, King speaks about the public’s response to the movement as well as his dedication to reaching racial equality through nonviolent measures.

Pair this text with King’s “I Have A Dream” speech to compare the style of the two speeches. How does King use figurative language in these two texts? How does his use of language contribute to the development of ideas in each text? How would this language appeal to an audience?

Jimmy Carter’s Nobel Lecture by Jimmy Carter (11th grade)

The 39th President of the United States, Jimmy Carter, advocated heavily for human rights and global peace. In 2002, Carter won the Nobel Peace Prize for his significant contributions to ending human suffering. In his acceptance speech, Carter speaks about world powers working together to close the poverty gap and fighting for human rights for all.

After reading, have students complete Discussion Question 3, “How does Carter suggest the United States contribute to securing international peace? In the time that has passed since Carter gave this speech, do you think the United States has come closer to achieving what Carter wanted? Why or why not?” Encourage students to cite real world examples to create text-to-world connections.

Looking for more famous speeches and texts to support reading comprehension for your secondary students? Check out the CommonLit library !

If you’re interested in learning about CommonLit’s free digital literacy program, join one of our upcoming webinars!

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70 Rhetorical Analysis Essay Topics for Secondary ELA

May 28, 2019 // by Lindsay Ann // 8 Comments

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Before we get to the rhetorical analysis essay prompts (a.k.a. tons of ready-to-analyze texts at your fingertips), let’s take a time-out to lay the groundwork for understanding a rhetorical analysis essay using ethos, pathos, and logos.

Rhetoric is Defined As…

Put simply, rhetoric refers to any technique an author uses to persuade an audience.

Or, the behind-the-scenes choices an author makes to give you all the feels.

Chances are, if you consider a text or speech to be really good , rhetorical techniques are working like a master puppeteer to pull at your heart strings, make an impact on your brain, and get you to let down your guard because you trust the author or speaker.

That’s why political figures have speech writers.

That’s why authors spend time fine-tuning their words and sentences.

Rhetoric is important.

In addition, rhetoric goes back to the ancient Greek philosophers like Aristotle, the “father” of rhetoric.

The Rhetorical Analysis Essay

Moving on, if rhetoric is the art of persuasion, then the rhetorical analysis essay analyzes how an author or speaker creates opportunity for persuasion in his/her text.

Writing a rhetorical analysis essay involves understanding of context and occasion for writing. It also involves understanding the subject matter of the speech and intended audience.

Beyond this, noticing how the author uses rhetorical appeals and rhetorical devices to impact the target audience can help you to write an in-depth rhetorical essay analysis.

The BEST Rhetoric Topics

As a teacher, I’m always in search of engaging texts for students to analyze. In this post, I’m sharing the best speeches, advertisements, and essays for rhetorical analysis. You’ll never run out of rhetorical analysis essay topics again!

So, you’ll definitely want to stop right now and pin this post.

Your future English-teacher-self will thank you.

47 Rhetoric Examples in Speeches

The following speeches work well individually, but I’ve also tried to add value by pairing texts together.

Whether you’re analyzing rhetorical appeals such as ethos, pathos, and logos or looking at rhetorical devices, these speeches will work for discussion or as the text for a rhetorical analysis essay.

Gettysburg Monologue in Remember the Titans – Pair with “ The Gettysburg Address ” by Abraham Lincoln
“ Full Power of Women ” by Priyanka Chopra – Pair with Emma Watson’s speech on the Power of Women
Speech from Finding Forrester – Pair with “ Integrity ” by Warren Buffet
Red’s Parole Hearing from Shawshank Redemption – Pair with the Freedom Speech from Braveheart
Ending Scene from The Breakfast Club – Pair with “ The Danger of a Single Story ” by Chimamanda Ngozi Achichi
Authentic Swing Speech from The Legend of Bagger Vance – Pair with “ How Winning is Done ” from Rocky Balboa
Maximus’ Speech to Commodus from Gladiator – Pair with The Revolutionary Speech from V for Vendetta
The Natural State of Mankind from Amistad – Pair with “ Our Diversity Makes Us Who We Are ” by Michelle Obama
Denzel Washington’s Dillard University Commencement Speech – Pair with “ The Last Lecture ” by Randy Pausch
“ Like Pieces of Glass in my Head ” from The Green Mile – Pair with “ Eulogy for Beau Biden ” by Barack Obama
Oprah’s 2018 Golden Globes speech – Pair with Seth Myers’ Golden Globes Monologue and/or Ellen says #MeToo
Independence Day speech – Pair with Aragorn’s Helm’s Deep Speech from LOTR: The Two Towers
Pair “I am Human” & “Love Liberates” , both by Maya Angelou
Pink’s VMA acceptance speech – Pair with “ If I Should Have a Daughter ” by Sarah Kay
Ellen’s People’s Choice Humanitarian Award Acceptance Speech – Pair with “ Pep Talk ” by Kid President
Gandalf Speaks to Frodo in Moria from LOTR : Fellowship of the Ring – Pair with Sam’s Speech in LOTR: The Two Towers
Obama’s Final Farewell Speech – Pair with Al Pacino’s Any Given Sunday speech – clean version
Harvard Graduation Speech by Donovan Livingston – Pair with Steve Jobs 2005 Stanford Commencement Speech
“ Inside the Mind of a Master Procrastinator ” by Tim Urban – Pair with “ Five Second Rule ” by Mel Robbins
Rachel Hollis “Inspire Women to be Their Best” (mild profanity)
My Philosophy for a Happy Life by Sam Berns
“ To this Day: For the Bullied and the Beautiful ” by Shane Koyczan – Pair with Kid President’s “ Pep Talk to Teachers and Students “
“ The Power of Introverts ” by Susan Cain – Pair with “ Don’t Let Others Stop You From Living Your Own Truth “

Rhetoric in Advertising: 23 Examples

This next list holds a blend of print advertisements and commercials, perfect for introducing close reading and rhetorical analysis and for writing a rhetorical analysis essay.

Ads are short, but pack a punch. Honestly, my students love analyzing the rhetoric of advertisements a lot because they are accessible and visual.

Rhetoric Commercials & Print Advertisements

“ Web of Fries “
Duracell “ Teddy Bear ” Commercial
Apple 1984 Commercial Introducing the New Macintosh Computer
Nike “ Find Your Greatness ” Ads
Pepsi, Superbowl 53 Commercial: “ More than Okay ”
“ Get a Mac ” Commercial Compilation
“ Can You Hear Me Now ” Verizon Wireless
Apple iPhone X – “ Unlock ”
Kiwi “ First Steps ” Print Advertisement
Vauxhall’s Backwards Cinderella
Lego Print Advertisement
Top 10 Powerful Ads of 2014

Rhetoric of the Image

Entourage NGO for the Homeless Print Advertisement Images
33 Creative Print Ads
Protege Group
Greenpeace Print Advertisement Collection
“ Divorce Furniture “
L’Oréal Paris: “This Ad Is For Men, 1 ” L’Oréal Paris: “This Ad Is For Men, 2 ” L’Oréal Paris: “This Ad Is For Men, 3 ”
“ It’s Not Acceptable to Treat a Woman Like One”
“ 50 Creative and Effective Advertising Examples “
Juvenile Protective Association
Anti-Bullying Campaign
25 Serious Ads

Writing a Rhetorical Analysis Essay Using Ethos, Pathos, and Logos

No doubt, writing a rhetorical analysis essay is like taking apart a puzzle and putting it back together again. Teachers, help your students to understand how all of the pieces fit together in order to see the bigger picture of what the author is trying to accomplish.

First, take time to understand how a text “works” for a rhetorical analysis essay using ethos, pathos, and logos:

Read or listen to understand overall content. Look up unfamiliar words.
Mark the text for the author’s main points and sub-points.
descriptive
compare/contrast
cause/effect
argumentative
Take notes on SOAPS: subject, occasion, audience, purpose, speaker
Discuss the text(s) in Socratic Seminar .

Next, identify rhetorical appeals .

Ethos: How an author demonstrates credibility and builds trust.
Pathos: How an author creates an emotional response.
Logos: How an author demonstrates expertise and knowledge.

Look for rhetorical devices & patterns in the text.

Rhetorical devices refer to an author’s use of diction and syntax.
Does the author repeat key words / phrases? What’s the impact?
Does the author return to the same idea or image? Why?

Finally, write a clear thesis statement & topic sentences for your rhetorical analysis essay.

Use your thesis statement to generate topic sentences.
In your body paragraphs, identify a technique, provide an example, and discuss the “right there” and “beneath the surface” meanings. How does the author’s choice impact the audience, further a message, establish a tone?
What’s the context for the repetition?
What connotations are important?
How is the anaphora used to move the reader to greater understanding (logos), emotional investment (pathos), and/or trust in the author’s ideas (ethos)?

Six Strategies for Teaching Rhetorical Analysis

I’ve created an awesome free guide to inspire English teachers who teach rhetoric and the rhetorical analysis essay in their classrooms. Even if you don’t teach AP lang, you can benefit from these strategies !

Rhetorical Analysis Essay FAQ’s

How do you write a rhetorical analysis essay.

Writing a rhetorical analysis essay is like writing a literary analysis essay, except the focus is on one or more non-fiction texts and the analysis targets an author’s style or rhetorical “moves” (a.k.a. use of rhetorical appeals and/or devices). Rhetorical analysis essays usually prove a claim about the author’s message or purpose for writing. The paragraphs in a rhetorical analysis essay unpack “what” an author is doing to send this message and “how” these choices impact the audience.

What does it mean to write a rhetorical analysis?

Writing a rhetorical analysis means that you are aware, as an audience member, reader, listener, human being, of the messages you consume. As a critical consumer of others’ ideas, you ask hard questions about how these messages are shaped, why they’re being delivered in certain ways, and why this is important for you and for society.

What are the three rhetorical strategies?

The three most commonly known rhetorical strategies are known as rhetorical appeals. Ethos (ethics) refers to credibility and trustworthiness. Pathos (passion) refers to engaging an audience’s emotions. Logos (logic) refers to engaging an audience’s brain through logical organization and use of evidence and arguments.

About Lindsay Ann

Lindsay has been teaching high school English in the burbs of Chicago for 19 years. She is passionate about helping English teachers find balance in their lives and teaching practice through practical feedback strategies and student-led learning strategies. She also geeks out about literary analysis, inquiry-based learning, and classroom technology integration. When Lindsay is not teaching, she enjoys playing with her two kids, running, and getting lost in a good book.

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Reader Interactions

January 9, 2023 at 9:38 am

Hi Lindsay Ann, thanks so much for these great resources. Just wanted to gently point out a couple errors that you might want to fix:

#12: should be Seth Myers’ (not Seth Myer’s) #13: should be independence (not independance)

Teachers have to help each other out 🙂

Best, Nikkee

January 9, 2023 at 5:44 pm

Thank you so much for letting me know, Nikkee!

[…] a lot of options and extensions for analyzing rhetoric in social media. Who knows, maybe your next rhetorical analysis essay assignment will be focused on rhetoric in social […]

[…] 70 Rhetorical Analysis Essay Topics for Secondary ELA […]

[…] find that teaching rhetorical analysis and close reading skills go hand-in-hand with teaching voice in […]

[…] helps students to remember that everything comes back to the author’s purpose or message in rhetorical analysis. Author’s purpose is central to unpacking an author’s choices, including use of […]

[…] you assigning a rhetorical analysis essay? Why not try having students use rhetorical analysis sentence […]

[…] I introduced students to rhetoric. First, we journaled on this topic: Think of a time someone talked you into doing something or believing something. How did they do it? What tactics did they use? Students may share out journals. I gave students a graphic organizer with a PAPA analysis (purpose, audience, persona, argument) and picked a speech. Frankly, the speech I picked, which was Samwise Gamgee’s speech to Frodo Baggins in The Two Towers, failed spectacularly since students had no frame of reference. Note: that movie is old now. I know. It makes me sad, too. So go cautiously if you use this, but maybe pick something else. You can find a massive list here. […]

10 Great American Speeches for the 7-12 Classroom

Readability and Rhetoric Ratings of Literary and Informational Texts

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Speeches can inspire students. Teachers in every subject area can use the texts of inspirational speeches to increase their students' background knowledge about a variety of topics. Speeches also address the Common Core Literacy Standards for Science, History, Social Studies, and Technical Subject Areas as well as the Standards for English Language Arts . They also guide teachers to ensure that their students understand word meanings, appreciate the nuances of words, and steadily expand their range of vocabulary and phrases.

Here are 10 great American speeches that helped define America during its first two centuries with a link to word count, readability level, and an example of a prominent rhetorical device that is contained within each text.

The Gettysburg Address

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Abraham Lincoln gave this speech , which began with the famous line, "Fourscore and seven years ago . . .," at the dedication of the Soldiers' National Cemetery near the battlefield in Gettysburg. The address occurred four and a half months after the Battle of Gettysburg .

Delivered by : Abraham Lincoln Date : November 19, 1863 Location: Gettysburg, Pennsylvania Word Count: 269 words Readability score : Flesch-Kincaid Reading Ease 64.4 Grade Level : 10.9 Rhetorical device used : Anaphora : Repetition of words at the start of clauses or verses.

"But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate—we cannot consecrate—we cannot hallow—this ground."

Abraham Lincoln's 2nd Inaugural Address

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The dome of the United States Capitol was unfinished when Lincoln delivered this Inaugural Address beginning his second term. It is notable for its theological argument. The following month, Lincoln was assassinated.

Delivered by : Abraham Lincoln Date : March 4, 1865 Location: Washington, D.C. Word Count: 706 words Readability score : Flesch-Kincaid Reading Ease 58.1 Grade Level : 12.1 Rhetorical device used : Allusion : A brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing, or idea of historical, cultural, literary, or political significance.

"It may seem strange that any men should dare to ask a just God's assistance in wringing their bread from the sweat of other men's faces, but let us judge not, that we be not judged."

Keynote Address at the Seneca Falls Women’s Rights Convention

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The Seneca Falls Convention was the first women's rights convention organized to "discuss the social, civil, and religious condition and rights of woman."

Delivered by : Elizabeth Cady Stanton Date : July 19, 1848 Location: Seneca Falls, New York Word Count: 1427 words Readability score : Flesch-Kincaid Reading Ease 64.4 Grade Level : 12.3 Rhetorical device used : Asyndeton (" unconnected" in Greek): A stylistic device used in literature to intentionally eliminate conjunctions between the phrases and in the sentence, yet maintain grammatical accuracy.

"The right is ours. Have it we must. Use it we will."

George Washington's Response to the Newburgh Conspiracy

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When the officers of the Continental Army threatened to march on the Capitol to demand back pay, George Washington stopped them with this short speech. At the conclusion, he took out his glasses and said, “Gentlemen, you must pardon me. I have grown old in the service of my country and now find that I am growing blind.” Within minutes, the officers-eyes filled with tears-voted unanimously to express confidence in Congress and their country.

Delivered by : General George Washington Date : March 15, 1783 Location: Newburgh, New York Word Count: 1,134 words Readability score : Flesch-Kincaid Reading Ease 32.6 Grade Level : 13.5 Rhetorical device used : Rhetorical Questions : Asked for effect or to lay emphasis on some point discussed when no real answer is expected.

"My God! what can this writer have in view, by recommending such measures? Can he be a friend to the Army? Can he be a friend to this Country? Rather, is he not an insidious Foe?"

Patrick Henry 'Give Me Liberty, or Give Me Death'

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Patrick Henry's speech was an attempt to persuade the Virginia House of Burgesses, meeting at St. John's Church in Richmond, to pass resolutions favoring Virginia joining the American Revolutionary War.

Delivered by : Patrick Henry Date : March 23, 1775 Location: Richmond, Virginia Word Count: 1215 words Readability score : Flesch-Kincaid Reading Ease 74 Grade Level : 8.1 Rhetorical device used : Hypophora: Asking a question and immediately answering it.

"Has Great Britain any enemy, in this quarter of the world, to call for all this accumulation of navies and armies? No, sir, she has none. They are meant for us: they can be meant for no other."

Sojourner Truth 'Ain't I A Woman?'

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This speech was delivered extemporaneously by Sojourner Truth , who was enslaved from the time of her birth in New York State. She spoke at the Women's Convention in Akron, Ohio, 1851. Frances Gage , the president of the convention, recorded the speech 12 years later.

Delivered by : Sojourner Truth Date : May 1851 Location: Akron, Ohio Word Count: 383 words Readability score : Flesch-Kincaid Reading Ease 89.4 Grade Level : 4.7 Rhetorical device used : Metaphor: To make an implicit, implied, or hidden comparison between two things or objects that are poles apart from each other but have some characteristics common between them. Metaphor of pints and quarts to discuss the rights held by Black women in comparison to others.

"If my cup won't hold but a pint, and yours holds a quart, wouldn't you be mean not to let me have my little half measure full?"

Fredrick Douglass 'The Church and Prejudice'

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Douglass was enslaved from the time of his birth on a Maryland plantation, but in 1838, at age 20, he self-liberated in New York. This lecture was one of his first major anti-enslavement oratories.

Delivered by : Fredrick Douglass Date : November 4, 1841 Location: Plymouth County Anti-Slavery Society in Massachusetts. Word Count: 1086 Readability score : Flesch-Kincaid Reading Ease 74.1 Grade Level : 8.7 Rhetorical device used : Anecdote : A short and interesting story or an amusing event often proposed to support or demonstrate some point and make readers and listeners laugh. Douglass tells the story of a young lady recovered from a trance:

"...she declared she had been to heaven. Her friends were all anxious to know what and whom she had seen there; so she told the whole story. But there was one good old lady whose curiosity went beyond that of all the others—and she inquired of the girl that had the vision, if she saw any Black folks in heaven? After some hesitation, the reply was, 'Oh! I didn't go into the kitchen!'"

Chief Joseph 'I Will Fight No More Forever'

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Chief Joseph of the Nez Perce, pursued 1500 miles through Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and Montana by the U.S. Army, spoke these words when he finally surrendered. This speech followed the final engagement of the Nez Perce War. The transcript of the speech was taken by Lieutenant C.E.S. Wood.

Delivered by : Chief Joseph Date : October 5th, 1877 Location: Bears Paw (Battle of the Bears Paw Mountains), Montana Word Count: 156 words Readability score : Flesch-Kincaid Reading Ease 104.1 Grade Level : 2.9 Rhetorical device used : Direct Address : The use of a term or name for the person spoken to, as in securing the attention of that person; use of a vocative form.

"Hear me, my Chiefs!"

Susan B. Anthony and Women's Right to Vote

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Susan B. Anthony gave this speech on multiple occasions after her arrest for casting an illegal vote in the presidential election of 1872. She was tried and then fined $100 but refused to pay.

Delivered by : Susan B. Anthony Date : 1872 - 1873 Location: Stump Speech delivered in all 29 postal districts of Monroe County, New York Word Count: 451 words Readability score : Flesch-Kincaid Reading Ease 45.1 Grade Level : 12.9 Rhetorical device used : Parallelism : The use of components in a sentence that are grammatically the same; or similar in their construction, sound, meaning or meter.

"It is an odious aristocracy; a hateful oligarchy of sex; the most hateful aristocracy ever established on the face of the globe; an oligarchy of wealth, where the right govern the poor. An oligarchy of learning, where the educated govern the ignorant, or even an oligarchy of race, where the Saxon rules the African, might be endured; but this oligarchy of sex, which makes father, brothers, husband, sons, the oligarchs over the mother and sisters, the wife and daughters of every household..."

'Cross of Gold' Speech

This "Cross of Gold" speech thrust William Jennings Bryan into the national spotlight where his dramatic speaking style and rhetoric roused the crowd to a frenzy. Reports from those in the audience noted that at the conclusion of the speech, he thrust his arms wide, a visual representation of the speech's last line. The next day the convention nominated Bryan for President on the fifth ballot.

Delivered by : William Jennings Bryan Date : July 9, 1896 Location: Democratic National Convention in Chicago Word Count: 3242 words Readability score : Flesch-Kincaid Reading Ease 63 Grade Level : 10.4 Rhetorical device used : Analogy : A comparison in which an idea or a thing is compared to another thing that is quite different from it. Gold standard to a "crown of thorns" to "crucify mankind."

"....we shall answer their demands for a gold standard by saying to them, you shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns. You shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold ."

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The National Archives for Education offers thousands of primary source documents—including speeches—which can be used as teaching tools to bring history to life.

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Curriculum / ELA / 12th Grade / Unit 4: Famous Speeches / Lesson 12

Famous Speeches

Lesson 12 of 16

Readings and Materials

Target task, key questions.

Analyze the rhetorical choices Truth makes to develop her argument.

Speech: “Ain't I a Woman?” by Sojourner Truth

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Tasks that represents the peak thinking of the lesson - mastery will indicate whether or not objective was achieved

Writing Prompt

Which devices does Truth use that you find to be most powerful? Why?

Draft a skillful introduction paragraph for a rhetorical analysis essay on Truth.

Questions about the text that will help guide the students understanding

Suggestions for teachers to help them teach this lesson

Instructional Notes

The teacher may choose to alter this target task slightly if the data from previous days/weeks are pointing to an area other than introductions that students are struggling with. Perhaps:

Articulating the rhetorical situation
Accurately identifying rhetorical devices and evidence of devices
Explaining how the device results in a particular appeal
Connecting the rhetorical strategy to the purpose and why this was effective for this audience
Producing a comprehensive thesis

Background Information

What is Truth’s purpose for repeating the rhetorical question “Ain’t I a Woman?”
Truth employs a specific organization pattern in which she uses paragraphs 2, 3, and 4 to conduct a point-by-point refutation of arguments she has heard others make.
She employs logos (logic) in the structure, ethos by showing her strength, and pathos by using diction and religious allusions that create empathy for women.
Truth establishes a direct tone in that she refutes and then sits down. She doesn’t muddy the issue with other concerns or stray from her point. She shows that a woman without elevated language still has experience and a logical approach to the issue of woman’s rights.

Identify the rhetorical situation and explain its significance.

Identify the appeals present within the text and the devices/strategies used to generate that appeal.

Identify the appeals present within a text and the devices/strategies used to generate that appeal.

“The Whiskey Speech”
“Purple is the Noblest Shroud”

Analyze how an author uses devices to generate an appeal and ultimately achieve his or her purpose.

Analyze the rhetorical choices Obama makes to develop his argument.

Analyze the rhetorical choices Henry makes to develop his argument.

Draft an analysis that demonstrates effective and comprehensive reasoning.

Analyze the rhetorical choices Churchill makes to develop his argument.

Analyze the rhetorical choices Roosevelt makes to develop his argument.

“Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat”
“Pearl Harbor Speech”

Compare and contrast rhetorical strategies in speeches by Churchill and Roosevelt.

Evaluate how both authors use specific devices to develop the central idea or purpose of the speech.

Analyze the rhetorical choices Churchill or Roosevelt makes to develop his argument.

Draft an effective introduction that establishes the rhetorical situation and provides a comprehensive thesis describing the rhetorical techniques the author uses to achieve his purpose.

Analyze the rhetorical choices Stewart makes to develop her argument.

“Ain't I a Woman?”
“Why Sit Ye Here and Die?”

Compare and contrast the rhetorical strategies employed by Sojourner Truth and Maria Stewart in their speeches.

Assessment – 2 days

Complete an optional extension project by writing a speech on a topic of his or her choosing.

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Traditionally, teachers have encouraged students to engage with and interpret literature—novels, poems, short stories, and plays. Too often, however, the spoken word is left unanalyzed, even though the spoken word has the potential to alter our space just as much than the written. After gaining skill through analyzing a historic and contemporary speech as a class, students will select a famous speech from a list compiled from several resources and write an essay that identifies and explains the rhetorical strategies that the author deliberately chose while crafting the text to make an effective argument. Their analysis will consider questions such as What makes the speech an argument?, How did the author's rhetoric evoke a response from the audience?, and Why are the words still venerated today?

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Analyze Famous Speeches for Rhetorical Structures and Devices (English I Reading)

Introduction, speaker, audience, and purpose, aristotle's appeals, rhetorical structures and devices, persuasion – from beginning to end.

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Rhetoric in My World: Engaging Students in Rhetorical Analysis Through Political Speechwriting

Teaching situation and rationale.

"In order to make America a true democracy, it was crucial to give every citizen access to eloquence" 1 (Roach 114). This idea, prevalent in the 18 th and 19 th centuries, that in school all children should receive practice with oratorical skills in order to communicate effectively in expressing their opinions, is one that seems more and more essential to me to introduce in my classroom. The majority of my students struggle with issues such as accessing affordable health care, earning a living wage and coping with immigration reform. By connecting the skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking, and using rhetorical analysis of political speeches as an entry point, I want my students to empower themselves through developing and voicing their opinions on these and other issues that affect their daily lives.

My school is a neighborhood school in East Tulsa, and is one of the most diverse high schools in Oklahoma. Over half our students are Hispanic, with a significant proportion classified as English Language Learners; 20% are African American; 13% are White; 8% are Native American; 4% are Asian; .1% are Pacific Islander, and 2% identify themselves as Multiracial. 16% qualify for Special Education services and 100% qualify for the free and reduced lunch program based on their parents' income. The average ACT score for 2012-2013 was below the state average, as was the number of students passing the English II End of Instruction Exam (one of the high-stakes exams students must pass in order to graduate), hence the increased instructional time spent on standardized test preparation during the last three years. The diversity in the school as a whole is reflected in my classroom. I will teach this unit to four sections of 11 th grade Advanced Placement and Composition students. At East Central we have an open enrollment policy, so my AP Language classes are composed of students with varying ability levels, several of whom are English Language Learners (ELL's). My ELL students are usually highly motivated because they've self-selected a more advanced course, but they often struggle with vocabulary and syntax because of inadequate background knowledge. While some students are reading at or above grade level and are comfortable with the writing process and literary analysis, others are reading below grade level, have a more limited vocabulary, and are reluctant readers and writers. All, however, are smart, funny, interesting and very perceptive. Several will never have had an AP English class before, so analyzing rhetoric will be a new skill for them. Rhetorical analysis and argumentation are foundational aspects of the AP Language course, and students study and deconstruct speeches throughout the year. However, when encountering works from a more distant time period, sometimes they shut down because they feel so intimidated by or disconnected from the reading. My main aim is to make the study of rhetorical devices and appeals more relevant for my students by helping them see these devices are at work in the world all around them, as well as identifying issues that are relevant to them. Some are undocumented immigrants and are interested in and directly affected by immigration reform issues, for example. Many students feel marginalized because of their cultural or socioeconomic backgrounds. I want to help them connect with the speeches in a way that makes them more relevant, so they recognize how current issues and politics affect their world, and become empowered through forming their opinions and developing a voice to express them.

Oklahoma's standards are the PASS (Priority Academic Student Skills) Objectives. This unit meets the standards for Reading/Literature by exposing students to a wide variety of speeches from different politicians and different time periods. These works represent a wide range of voices and messages, from Queen Elizabeth I motivating her troops to fight bravely against Spanish forces in 1588, to Los Angeles Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa's speech to the National Press Club in 2007 on the necessity of improving education to combat poverty. I selected these works to help students make connections between pieces from different periods and issues, and to convey a sense of how rhetorical tools are used in different settings, often to similar effect. I also want them to think about the variety of issues covered (health care reform, education reform, minimum wage increase, space exploration, immigration reform, responses to difficult economic times), their opinions on those, and possible intersections with their experience. It will also give them a variety of models to review when they begin writing speeches on their chosen issues.

Vocabulary development and Media Literacy are addressed as we look at advertisements to understand and illustrate the meaning of various rhetorical devices. My students are always borrowing magazines from my classroom collection of newspapers and magazines. This activity activates students' background knowledge by taking a genre they are already familiar with (advertising) and using it to reinforce the meaning of various devices, while also illustrating how students see them every day while flipping through their favorite magazines. This will reinforce the idea that these are not just remote, abstract concepts; on the contrary, these devices are at work in the world around them (and that often, they are members of the intended audience).

Students will develop their comprehension as we analyze organizational patterns in speeches and evaluate the speakers' arguments, using guiding questions and graphic organizers to facilitate understanding. They will draw inferences and make assertions about these arguments, using specific references to the text to support their analysis, while also deepening their understanding of the influence of historical context on the piece. My students sometimes make assertions about a text based on what they think they remember, without going back to the text for support. The guiding questions and graphic organizers will require them to support their interpretation with evidence. They'll also use these tools to analyze how elements such as organization, repetition, word choice and use of literary devices affect the development of a work. These products will also serve as visual reminders and models of the development of different works they can refer to when preparing their own pieces.

To give them a solid foundation to work from when developing their arguments, students will research issues and select information to go into their 'casebooks'. I want them to look at specific aspects of the issues they choose (the history, important events and people, major claims and counterclaims, anecdotes, etc.), which will improve their research skills, and give them a place to keep their facts and anecdotal information together, so they can access them easily when they begin writing.

Students will write and edit their persuasive speeches using the Writing Workshop model, paying careful attention to including rhetorical appeals and concessions, supporting their opinion with appropriate evidence and using devices they have learned from modeling throughout the unit (such as repetition, parallel structure and antithesis) to reinforce meaning, always bearing in mind that they're writing a text for oral delivery and making rhetorical choices accordingly.

And finally, they will deliver their speeches and listen to those of their peers, allowing them to hear and respond to each other. I believe students benefit greatly from sharing their ideas, and also gain confidence from delivering them orally. It is my hope that this process allows them to take ownership of their ideas and their writing, ultimately giving them greater ownership of the issues.

Because my students are often overwhelmed by the amount of high stakes testing and test preparation they must endure as Sophomores and Juniors in my state, this unit is created around authentic purposes and products. It is focused on having students read and analyze political speeches, then helping them create real-world scenarios for writing and delivering their own. For example, students will study how rhetorical devices are used in a political speech, then be tasked with researching an issue they are interested in, writing a speech for a specific audience (for example, composing a speech for the city council on minimum wage) and then delivering it to an audience of their peers. This provides practice with rhetorical analysis and argumentative writing, and makes them more familiar with contemporary issues, all of which assists with preparation for the AP Language Exam and increases their investment in their own ideas and writing.

Research studies, such as one conducted by Coker and Erwin in 2010, have found that instructional approaches that include "explicit instruction in the elements of argument, modeling of how to write or engage in arguments, opportunities to practice… (orally or through writing) and appropriate feedback ..." have been successful in developing the argumentative writing skills of at-risk adolescents in urban school settings. 2 Accordingly, this unit incorporates several strategies that allow for explicit instruction in rhetorical elements, use of a variety of models, and opportunities for development of student writing and feedback.

Since all the pieces are short works, and we will be doing extended analytical exercises in groups with each one, all assigned reading will take place in classroom. Because the unit is approximately six weeks, there will be adequate time for that. Some pieces, such as Lincoln's Gettysburg Address , are included in our district-adopted American Literature textbooks, but most will be provided as photocopies, so students can annotate as they are reading and keep copies in their notebooks. As available, we'll be viewing most of the speeches on YouTube prior to reading, which will support my visual and auditory learners, as well as students struggling with reading comprehension. At various points during guided reading we will be deconstructing the speeches in sections, so I will stop frequently to check for understanding, provide clarification and introduce and guide activities. Students will read silently and aloud at different points.

As much of the terminology students will encounter in this unit will be new to them, particularly students who are taking AP English for the first time, an ongoing strategy that will be introduced at the beginning of the unit will involve introducing specific devices/vocabulary/elements of argumentation from the speeches. We will do this through "reading" and analyzing advertisements as they relate to the rhetorical triangle (speaker, purpose, audience, subject and context), and then using those advertisements to illustrate rhetorical devices we will encounter in the speeches (appeals, antithesis, parallel syntax, etc.). Students will find examples of each of the devices in print and keep a master list and examples in their casebooks (described below). Since they will be encountering new devices in different readings, this activity will be introduced through mini-lessons, and will be ongoing throughout the unit for reinforcement of concepts. There will also be a quiz given over the devices at the end of the unit, as an additional method of checking for understanding.

To help students understand the way each speech is constructed, as well as how they relate to each other, we will be completing close reading activities. The desks in my classroom are arranged in groups of four, so they can easily work together. They will use the classroom sets of marker boards to answer questions as a group (identifying the elements of the rhetorical triangle, for example) and hold them up, so I can easily check for understanding. Each group will contribute observations made on post-it notes to create charts on the wall with insights on the introduction, examples of strategies used, the methods of development and examples of rhetorical devices used. They will use these to complete individual graphic organizers where they chart the development of each piece paragraph by paragraph, so later they can compare each piece they have read during group discussion, and have models to refer to when composing their own. The emphasis on group work will help my ELL students, those who are new to the AP English program and my struggling readers.

Each Friday, from the beginning of the unit, we will have 30 minutes set aside during class for Sustained Silent Reading (SSR) time when students will use the classroom laptops to look up current news articles covering current issues from online sources such as Tulsa World , New York Times , Chicago Tribune , etc. and read silently to develop their understanding of events going on in the world - internationally, nationally and locally. At the end of SSR time, we'll have a group discussion where each student will tell about the news stories they read, as well as their opinions on them. This will deepen their knowledge of current events, and give them ideas for issues they could research in their casebooks.

In preparation for writing their own speeches, each student will develop a "casebook" with key information on at least two issues they are interested in, as well as articles I will give them before reading the speeches. For example, when we read the speeches on the space program, I will give them a transcript of the Walter Cronkite piece, "How Sputnik Changed the World" on NPR, so they can get a sense of the history of the space program. Also, I will give them excerpts from On Speaking Well by Peggy Noonan, when she writes about crafting the Challenger speech for Reagan. When we read the Long and FDR speeches, I will give them excerpts from Union of Words by Wayne Fields, where he gives background information about their use of the new medium of radio and connections to the Great Depression. I will also use the "Times Topics" section of The New York Times online to give students readings on The Great Depression as well as the history of immigration and minimum wage legislation. They will also assemble facts, statistics, background information, etc. on their two issues to develop a more in-depth understanding of both sides (they will have access to the classroom laptops and be given time during class to work on developing their casebooks). Their casebooks will also include information on their first-hand experiences with the issues, as well as anecdotes from others; this will help them as they are developing emotional and ethical appeals.

Finally, I will incorporate a variety of writing strategies as students compose and deliver their own speeches. We will use a Writing Workshop model, where students work in groups during class time to write, share and revise their pieces. They can compose their first drafts by hand, or on the classroom laptops. Some research has shown that when students compose using laptops, they are more likely to re-read their writing as they compose, 3 and word processing can help students with writing difficulties "produce a text that looks good, and they can go back and fix things without introducing new mistakes", 4 so I will require them to type their second and final drafts. They'll share their writing aloud with each other at various stages, so they can hear the sound of the words and the rhythm of the language. I want them to realize how they notice different things when reading their writing aloud, so we'll review the differences in pieces that are written to be delivered aloud (such as syntactical differences) and discuss various strategies for effective delivery.

Study of Political Speeches

To relate the idea that this unit is about showing students how rhetoric is at work in the world all around them, and empowering them to find their voice in relation to an issue they care about, we will begin by watching the YouTube video of Asean Johnson's speech at a Chicago Teachers Union rally. This will help them see the impact a student voice can have. We'll then use the Smartboard to brainstorm a variety of issues that interest them.

The first three weeks will be filled with group reading (using a variety of close reading strategies, as described above), discussion and written analysis of a variety of political speeches. We will begin with two that are very accessible: Queen Elizabeth I's "Tilbury Speech" and John F. Kennedy's 1962 Presidential Address, "Preservation of Price Stability". I chose these because they each have a very clear purpose students' are quick to pick up on. They both rely heavily on an appeal to ethos to inspire confidence, use of strong diction to motivate and invoke pathos, and parallel structure to unify and emphasize ideas. The Queen's purpose is motivating her troops to fight bravely against the invading Spanish Armada in 1588. She addresses them as "My loving people", and refers to them as "faithful" and "loyal", using pathos to motivate. She says "I myself will take up arms" and "I myself will be your general, judge and rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field". In his commentary on the speech, William Safire writes that the Queen, "commanded the affection of her subjects by virtue of her courage and her identification with the nation's fate" 5 an idea emphasized by her use of parallel structure. Likewise, JFK is seeking to move the American people to outrage against "a tiny handful of steel executives whose pursuit of private power and profit exceeds their sense of public responsibility". He refers to their actions as "unjustifiable and irresponsible", and says they show, "contempt for 185 million Americans", the very people he is seeking to galvanize with his words. He bolsters his credibility by beginning his speech with a reminder of the sacrifices each American was making during that time, including himself, as "we are devoting our energies to economic recovery and stability", in order to emphasize that he, like Queen Elizabeth, was there with his people 6 . He goes on to use parallel structure to emphasize the negative economic effect of the steel price hike. With this pairing, I want students to see how the same devices can be used in similar ways in two political speeches from very different periods.

Next, we will look at Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address , focusing on use of antithesis, and, once again, diction and parallel structure. First, I'll show the "Gettysburg Address Mash Up" videos on YouTube, to bring this historical document into the modern day. Then we'll do our own "mash up" group reading, with each student taking a small section, so they can hear the sounds of the words, and how parallel structure is used to create rhythm. As we re-read and analyze, I want to give them a sense of the historical connections of Lincoln's use of antithesis, for example, to "the characteristic organization of Greek prose by polarities". 7 I want them to understand how Lincoln's more vernacular word choice is tied to the historical context, as "events were moving too fast for the more languid phrases of the past", 8 as well as understanding how his use of monosyllables affects the "rhythmic pacing". 9

From there, we'll look at two sets of speeches paired around common themes or time periods: Senator Huey Long's "Every Man a King" speech and FDR's Fireside Chat on "Farmers and Laborers" (both addressing the issue of hard economic times), followed by President John F Kennedy's "Space Exploration" speech, paired with President Ronald Reagan's "Challenger" speech.

President Roosevelt and Senator Long are both voicing responses to hard economic times during The Great Depression. Both speeches utilize biblical allusions, and strong appeals to ethos, pathos and logos, underscored by use of parallel structure and anaphora. Both men also utilized the then new technology of radio to connect with the public. As an interesting side note, Samuel I Rosenman, a speechwriter for FDR, said that "Roosevelt feared a challenge from the Democratic populist-progressive Long more than from any Republican". 10 At the time of this speech, delivered a year before FDR's Fireside Chat, The New Deal had not delivered the country from The Great Depression, so Long was presenting the ordinary citizens of Louisiana with his "Share the Wealth" program. He establishes his ethos by repeatedly invoking "the law of the Lord" and frequently using personal pronouns, as when laying out his main claim that "in order to cure all of our woes it is necessary to scale down the big fortunes, that we may scatter the wealth to be shared by all of the people…", and repeatedly referring to his audience as "my friends". This reinforces the idea that he is there with the people, on their side. Long appeals to the emotions of the unemployed when he sets up his claim that the problem in the country is not a lack of resources, but "the greed of a few men…" for whom "…pleasure consists in the starvation of the masses", such that ordinary people do not have money to buy the available goods. This is underscored by his use of anaphora ("We have the farm problem…..We have a home loan problem…We have trouble, my friends…") and parallelism ("we have in America today more wealth, more goods, more food…") 11 Long also sets up a logical appeal by detailing the economic statistics of his plan in the second half of his speech.

Roosevelt also appeals to logos in Fireside Chat #8, when he lays out the logical reasoning behind his work projects to conserve water and control soil erosion to battle the severe drought conditions affecting farmers in September 1936, as the country continued in the grip of The Great Depression. He builds his ethos in the beginning of his speech by speaking of his travels to affected areas, and underscores this idea with anaphora: "I saw drought devastation…I saw cattlemen…I saw livestock….I saw other farm families…", 12 to add to the idea that – like Long- he has a personal connection with, and concern for, those facing hardship. He also does this when beginning by addressing them as "My friends". But whereas Long's purpose was to galvanize, FDR's was more to reassure and, stylistically, to combine "the intimacy of the medium... with a great orator's sense of the poetic". 13 Timothy Raphael observes that "The compelling narratives of Roosevelt's "chats"…eschewed facts and figures in favor of anecdotes and analogies", 14 to bolster his credibility with those suffering during the depression. Roosevelt uses parallelism to underscore an emotional appeal when he follows up with a reflection on the personal qualities of "indomitable American farmers and stockmen and their wives and children who have carried on through desperate days, and inspire us with their self-reliance, their tenacity and their courage." 15 He wants them to feel he acknowledges their struggles. Likewise, he says, "we are members one of another", a biblical allusion to a "New Testament description of a community of faith", 16 wherein all are connected, to inspire people to persevere, even in the face of struggle. I want students to make these connections between strategies and see how FDR "used radio messages as a way of connecting his audience, drawing together people" who might never actually meet, 17 while Long used it to "build a national following" and "bring new hope to people ground into poverty". 18

President John F Kennedy's speech on the early United States space program and Ronald Reagan's speech on the shuttle Challenger tragedy both address the issue of space exploration at different points in its history, but the core message is the same: the space program must continue, regardless of expense or difficulties encountered. Kennedy uses antithesis to contrast "change" and "challenge", "hope" and "fear", "cost" and "reward", "behind" and "forward", "easy" and "hard" to emphasize the direction he believes the space program must move: ahead. He makes reference to history to build his ethos, saying "This country was conquered by those who moved forward, and so will space". He concedes that the cost is high, but emphasizes the need to press onward as "we must be bold". Using rhetorical questions to make people think about "Why the moon?" he answers, employing more antithesis, that it's not because it is easy, but because it is hard. 19 Because Reagan is speaking to the pain of the nation, he uses the pronoun "we" several times to connect with his audience and include everyone in the collective mourning. He also uses antithesis at the beginning of his speech to juxtapose a past accident with the Challenger disaster, and also says that "we have forgotten the courage it took for the crew of the shuttle. But they…were aware", to make the point that even though this is an unprecedented tragedy, the crew knew the risks and accepted them. He contrasts "the fainthearted" with "the brave", 20 implying that America must be brave, as the Challenger crew were. Peggy Noonan, who crafted the speech for the president, writes that it had to "make it clear to the children that life goes on" and "reassure the American people that the tragedy, though terrible, will not halt our efforts in space". 21 As Reagan said, "Nothing ends here-our hopes and our journeys continue." 22 I want students to see how the rhetoric of both presidents was crafted to convey a common message about national policy regarding space exploration, designed to comfort, reassure and engender support.

These will be followed by three sets of more contemporary speeches, showing different sides of current issues: President Obama's 2013 Immigration Reform Address, paired with Arizona Governor Jan Brewer's SB1070 Speech; Los Angeles Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa's "Pressing Urban Issues and the California Political Scene" (focusing on education) paired with Louisiana Governor Bobby Jindal's Education Reform Speech on YouTube, and Senate Floor Speeches on Minimum Wage Legislation on YouTube from Senator Elizabeth Warren and Senator Ted Cruz ("The Minimum Wage Hurts the Most Vulnerable Among Us").

In their speeches on immigration reform, President Obama and Arizona Governor Jan Brewer both use repetition and appeals to ethos, pathos and logos to impart a sense of urgency regarding the issue, but I want students to see how these strategies ultimately convey a markedly different tone in each piece. Obama begins by appealing to pathos as he identifies with his audience and uses "goodwill and flattery to emotionally engage…by means of empathy", 23 referring to them as "good friends" and acknowledging the mascot and principal of the school where he is speaking. He concludes his introduction by emphasizing the need for immigration reform, conveying urgency through repetition of the phrase "Now it she time". He goes on to acknowledge the system is "broken" but relates that others are willing to work with him "to welcome the striving, hopeful immigrants", setting a tone of acceptance and inclusiveness. He also repeats the word "stronger" to reinforce the impact he feels this will have on the economy and future of the country. He uses repetition throughout the speech to emphasize "the important role of the immigrants in America and the necessity of a country and a politician who cares for them", 24 the latter bolstering his ethos. He also builds his ethos when he lists the steps his administration has already taken to deal with the issue. He appeals to logic when he outlines the economic reasons leading up to his claim, which is "Congress must act", and referring to statistics about the scope of the problem. He ends with an emotional appeal, an anecdote about a man in the audience who benefited from legislation he signed, using him as a symbol representing all immigrants striving for better opportunities. 25

In her speech on signing SB1070, Arizona's immigration legislation, Governor Jan Brewer also uses repetition of words to underscore her message, repeating "protecting our citizens" and "protecting our state" to reinforce her purpose in signing the legislation. Her word choice reflects the negative effects of illegal immigration in that state that she claims she is guarding against, such as "crime", "violence, "murderous greed" and "destruction". This emotionally charged word choice, paired with her position that the bill seeks to "solve a crisis we didn't create", sets up an urgent and somewhat defensive tone, as Brewer uses ethos, pathos and logos to support her position. She uses repetition to build her ethos, referring to her time in public service and her assertion that she has "worked without fail to solve problems diligently and practically...always with an eye toward civility, and always with the greatest respect for the rule of law", as well as how she has worked "to bring people together, no matter the color of their skin." She wants her audience to feel that she is always fair and they can trust her. She refers first to how she "listened patiently to both sides", then turns to an emotional appeal as she contrasts that with the "decades of federal inaction and misguided policy" she puts forward as her main reason for taking this action. She goes on to appeal to logic, outlining how she will ensure individual civil rights are protected, anticipating those who "have an interest in seeing us fail". She ends, once again, with repetition to emphasize what her beliefs are about the laws of Arizona 26

When it comes to education reform, Los Angeles Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa and Louisiana Governor Bobby Jindal have very different perspectives on which steps need to be taken to improve educational opportunities for America's children. Although they use similar rhetorical strategies, the ways in which they use them reflect these differences. Villaraigosa uses ethos, pathos, logos and repetition in ways that underscore his values, repeating, "I believe that people working together can change the world…I believe that in a democratic society…we have a responsibility to serve". He begins by using an emotional appeal to identify with his audience by acknowledging them and their work as members of the press, "doing what you believe in". This sets up a reference to the effects of Hurricane Katrina, in which he uses parallelism and repetition to make his point, "if you're flat broke or flat on your back, you may be flat out of luck in a time of serious jeopardy". He goes on to use a logical appeal as he lists statistics on poverty in America and talks about the work of the Mayor's Task Force on Poverty, Work and Opportunity and their recommendations for moving education reform to the front of national debate, which he lists in detail. Finally, he ends by appealing to ethos, stating "I say this as one who knows…Somebody gave me a second chance" to bolster his credibility to speak on the issue and underscore his point that everyone needs to work together to combat poverty through providing better educational opportunities 27

In speaking on education reform to the Brookings Institution, Governor Jindal also uses appeals to ethos, pathos and logos, as well as repetition, in a speech framed with a series of anecdotes reflecting his belief (used to open his talk and appeal to the emotion of the audience) that "The United States of America does not provide equal opportunities in education". He emphasizes this by repeating "We do not" twice during his opening, as well as repeating "You do not have the resources" when referring to parents who cannot enroll their child in a different school if "your child attends a failing school".

He uses words with negative, emotionally charged connotations, such as "scandalous" and "shameful" to describe the teachers unions that he believes are responsible for "stopping school choice from occurring all over the country". He claims that "Quality is driven by competition, accountability and autonomy". To support that claim, he relates a series of anecdotes that unify his argument, including stories about students who benefited from The New Orleans Scholarship Program and other programs which provide opportunities for school choice. Throughout these stories he weaves statistics that convey a logical appeal, emphasizing the numbers of students in Louisiana who have benefited from these programs and the growth of charter schools. He ends – as Villaraigosa did – by bolstering his ethos, saying "Neither should equal opportunity in education be considered an ideological issue…Equal opportunity in education should not be a conservative position, or a liberal position, it's an American position.", to leave the impression that his position is in the best interests of every American 28

Texas Senator Ted Cruz and Massachusetts Senator Elizabeth Warren both gave speeches on the Floor of the US Senate on the issue of raising the minimum wage. Senator Cruz's speech came just before the Senate vote on the issue and Senator Warren's just after. As this is the last set of speeches we will look at together as a class, we'll be viewing them on YouTube without reading the transcripts, and focusing on how Warren and Cruz use persuasive rhetorical strategies to convey very different viewpoints to the same audience. Students will also think about their own opinions on the topic. As we begin, they will draw two t-charts in their casebooks (one for Warren and one for Cruz). On the left side they will record what "they say", and on the right side, what "I say" in response. This will help them think about the specific points each Senator is making and what evidence they're using for support, as well as their own reactions. When examining strategies, I want them to notice that both speakers use personal anecdotes about their parents to convey an emotional appeal, designed to persuade their colleagues to accept their very different positions. Warren also uses it to bolster her ethos, saying, "I know this story because it's my story", 29 to get readers to accept her authority to speak because of her background and her personal interest in the issue. Both use statistics and facts about the history of the minimum wage to create a logical appeal, with Cruz using this to support his position that a minimum wage hike would put businesses out of work and create layoffs, using Burger King as an example, and also breaking down the unemployment rate by race, pointing out inequities. Meanwhile, Warren uses it to illustrate the numbers of Senators who voted for the legislation, to contrast them with the ones who created a filibuster to stop it from passing, which she calls "outrageous". Cruz uses visuals to underscore what he calls the "hard, brutal reality, of the Obama minimum wage", 30 repeating "brutal reality" twice, for emphasis, and ends with another anecdote for emotional effect. Warren also uses repetition to emphasize her position that passing this raise is "a chance" that they shouldn't let "get away", because it's been "7 years" since the last minimum wage hike. 31 We will discuss which speech students found more persuasive, based on their notes and analysis, as well as discussing whether the issue of gender played any part in the effectiveness of the delivery or reception of the message. Students will also locate additional speeches (either in print or on YouTube) related to their individual topics to inform their writing, described below.

Using the pieces we've analyzed as models, and consulting their casebooks for evidence, in the following two weeks, each student will draft their own speech (min. 3 minutes) on one topic of their choice from their casebook, following a Writing Workshop model for drafting and revision. Additional digital tools, such as Wordle.net, will also be used for revision. They will begin by determining a real-world audience for their speeches, whether a group within the school or outside, to guide their choice of rhetorical elements/devices. We will utilize resources within the school who work with the community, to help students determine possible audiences for their work. During the final week, students will deliver their speeches to an audience of their peers (and their specific audience, if possible). We will also be Skyping with other classrooms to give them a wider audience for their work. The written speeches will be assembled in an anthology to develop student ownership of their writing.

First Activity: Print Ad Analysis: Identifying Rhetorical Devices

This is an activity designed to introduce students to the rhetorical devices they will be encountering in the speeches. It is repeated to introduce different terms throughout the unit, beginning the first week before students read Queen Elizabeth's Tilbury Speech. It gives students a deeper understanding of the devices and how they function in a familiar context (in advertising and newspaper and magazine headlines) and increases their ability to identify them at work in the world around them.

The Process

Choose the devices that will be emphasized in the study of each speech (a list of terms and definitions are provided in the Resources section). Before reading Queen Elizabeth's Tilbury Speech, ethos, pathos and parallel structure can be introduced, for example. Choose a print ad or newspaper or magazine headline that illustrates those devices. For example, in an ad for The Trust for Public Land, the speaker establishes their ethos when they assert that "The Trust for Public Land is protecting the places that make your community special"; 32 they are trying to convey that they have their audience's best interest at heart. They appeal to pathos with the picture of the smiling little girl that dominates three quarters of the ad. An ad for McDonalds utilizes parallel structure when it reads, "If it sizzles and crackles and it's coming from the kitchen, it's breakfast; If it melts and toasts and says "carpe this diem" it's breakfast, etc. 33 Find two or three examples of each device to show. To introduce each one, have students draw a triangle on a small whiteboard and discuss the elements of the rhetorical triangle (speaker, audience, topic, purpose and context) as they apply to the first ad. Identify the main claim, and then have them work in pairs to identify those elements for each piece, illustrating them on the triangle on their whiteboards. Once students have an understanding of how the elements are functioning, go back and look at the ads and/or headlines, focusing on one device at a time, explaining the meaning of the device and how it is used in the piece. Next, have students go through newspapers and magazines so everyone can find two additional examples of each device. They will put one example on a large piece of chart paper which will remain posted on the wall (one piece of chart paper for each device), and one will go into their casebooks, along with the meaning in their own words and a quick summary of the effect. Finally, go around the room and have each student share the examples they found, explaining how and why they are used.

Second Activity: Speech Analysis Organizer

This activity is designed to give students a structured format for analyzing the speeches, so they have a process to follow. It will be introduced from the beginning of the unit, with the Queen Elizabeth and JFK speeches (after they have an understanding of the devices at work from the ad analysis activity) and will be repeated with each speech. This framework will help students develop confidence with analysis, so they can apply it to each piece we read, as well as future readings they encounter. It will also increase their ability to read a text closely, to connect method and meaning, and give them models to follow when they are composing their own speeches.

To gather their impressions of the overall structure of a piece, students will read copies of the speech silently, making note of things that interest them, use of devices they notice from the pre-reading vocabulary, etc., as well as questions they have about the piece (students at each set of desks will assemble a "group list" of questions, as many of them are wondering the same things, so no one will be reluctant to ask a question). After discussing overall impressions and addressing questions, begin deconstructing the speech with students, looking at the relationship of the elements of audience, speaker, subject, purpose and context, just as when looking at the ads/headlines. Each group will have a marker board to draw a triangle with the rhetorical elements, which can be held up to check their understanding before beginning discussion. At various points, stop so each group can talk and make notes on post its to post on a chart on the whiteboard under the categories of Introduction, Appeals, Methods of Development, and Other Rhetorical Strategies, to have a master list which gives an overall idea of how each piece is developed. Next, students will use ideas from these master lists to complete an individual graphic organizer charting the development of each piece (divided by beginning, middle and end of the speech), categorized by each of the sections above. The ultimate goal is for students to have an understanding of the following elements for each piece:

What are the elements of the rhetorical triangle in this piece (audience, subject, speaker, purpose, and context)?
Introduction: How does the piece begin (quotation, anecdote, etc.)? How does the speaker draw you in?
What is the main claim? Are there any additional claims?
What are the methods of development? How does the writer get you from one place to another in the speech?
Which appeals are used and what are some examples?
Which other rhetorical/language devices are used and to what effect?
What other events or issues can you connect this speech to?

After each student creates their graphic organizer, project each of the questions above on a whiteboard or Smartboard and have them write a 2-3 paragraph analysis that synthesizes what they've learned. Debrief as a group, with students sharing their writing.

Third Activity: Persuasive Speech Peer Review

This activity gives students a structured format for reading their writing aloud and reflecting on changes they want to make to convey their message, focusing on effective organization, word choice, and use of other rhetorical strategies. It will take place near the end of the unit, after students have studied all the speeches, researched their issues and written a first draft of their own speeches. Getting feedback from peers before writing a second draft gives them an opportunity to revise in a low-risk, no penalty situation.

Arrange desks in pairs, so students are sitting in groups of two, facing each other. Pair each student who has finished a first draft of their persuasive speech with another in their writing group who has also finished a draft (any students who do not have a first draft will continue to work on their writing in an adjacent area of the room). Tell students to spend the first 10-15 minutes taking turns reading their writing aloud to each other; explain how they will notice different things when they read their writing aloud than reading silently. Tell them to listen to the sound of the words; allow a couple of minutes after each speech for students to respond to each other orally and write down things they notice and questions they have after reading and listening. Use a timer to help keep them on track. When they're finished, each person spends an additional two minutes each talking about the at least two things they like about their piece and two things they want to work on. Next, hand out the peer review feedback sheets, and go over the questions below, which they will respond to. Have them trade papers and read silently, answering each of the following on the paper provided:

Draw a rhetorical triangle for the piece, identifying the subject, speaker, audience, purpose and context.
How does the writer begin? What do they use to get your attention (anecdote, humor, quotation, etc.)?
Does the introduction give readers a sense of the writer's aim and plan? If so, what is it? If not, what can they do to accomplish that?
What issue drives this essay? What ideas does it explore? What is the writer's main claim? Write it down and also list any secondary claims.
What are the methods of organization and development the writer uses? How do they get from one place to another in the speech? List them below. Is this organization effective? If not, what can be done to improve the organization?
What evidence does the writer use (statistics, personal anecdotes, history, etc.)?
List examples of the appeals used. What is the effect? Do they help the writer make their case?
hos –
How does the writer treat those who would disagree with their claim? Is there a concession to opposing points of view?
What are the main rhetorical devices used (anaphora, parallelism, antithesis, etc.)?
Type the speech into Wordle and make note of any words that are shown as repeated often. Is it an effective use of repetition?
Color code the diction using colored pencils: red=powerful words; gold=sentences that should be kept; blue=hazy words or sentences that are unclear and should be revised; black=consider taking out
Are the sentences crafted effectively? Describe the rhythm of the sentences. Do they vary in length and structure? Do they work together to convey the writer's message? Read your favorite sentence aloud to the writer. Make note of any that could be revised for effect.
Are there any errors in grammar and usage? If so, mark them directly on the paper.
Finally, is the speech convincing? Does it make you think and/or influence your feelings about the issue? How?

When students have finished completing their peer reviews, have them trade reviews, get back in their writing groups and begin working on their second drafts, using the oral and written feedback they've received.

The Oklahoma State Department of Education uses the PASS (Priority Academic Student Skills) Standards, which my district follows. This unit meets the following Reading/Literature Standards for 11 th grade: 1.4 (through the Print Ad Analysis Activity, which requires students to expand their vocabularies by using context to understand the meaning of a variety of rhetorical devices), 2.1a, b, c and d (through the Speech Analysis Organizer, which requires students to analyze the organizational pattern of a variety of speeches, the author's position, and the devices the author uses to accomplish their purpose, and using note taking to transfer their understanding to a graphic organizer), 2.2.a and d (as students discuss the influence of the historical context on the content and strategies of the speech, making specific references to the text in their notes to support their interpretations), 4.4b and c (through the Speech Analysis activity, which requires students to analyze the structure of a variety of speeches, explaining how the organization and language affect the message, and 3.3a (through the Print Ad Analysis activity, which requires students to identify various rhetorical devices). The unit meets the following Research and Information Standards for 11 th grade: 4.1a and b (through compiling 'casebooks' and reading and gathering information from a variety of sources), and 4.2e (through developing their speeches based on their research of their chosen issue). The unit meets the following Writing/Grammar/Mechanics and Usage Standards for 11 th grade: 1.a,b,c,d and e (through the process of writing speeches, which requires students to develop an clear, well-reasoned argument through writing multiple drafts, being mindful of audience and purpose and editing to ensure clarity and standard usage), 1.6 (as students write their speeches, which requires them to structure their arguments in a persuasive way and support their claims with relevant examples) and 1.7 (as students give each other feedback on their writing, to strengthen content and style). The unit meets the following standards for Modes and Forms of Writing: 2.3a-e (through writing their speeches, which requires them to compose an effective persuasive composition which addresses opposing points of view). The unit addresses the following Oral Language/Listening and Speaking Standards: 1.1, 2 and 4 (through listening to the speeches of their peers, identify major ideas and supporting evidence and evaluate the message), and 2.1, 2, 3 and 5 (through delivering their speeches, which requires students to demonstrate an awareness of audience and purpose). Finally, the unit meets Visual Literacy Standard 1.1 (through the Ad Analysis activity, which requires students to interpret visual media as they apply the elements of the rhetorical triangle to print advertisements and headlines).

Rhetorical Devices

Parallelism – similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses

Antithesis – the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, often in parallel structure

Alliteration – repetition of initial or medial consonants in two or more adjacent words

Anaphora – repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses

Climax – arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of increasing importance

Metaphor – implied comparison between two things of unlike nature

Simile – explicit comparison between two things of unlike nature

Personification – investing abstractions for inanimate objects with human qualities or abilities

Hyperbole – the use of exaggerated terms for the purpose of emphasis or heightened effect

Rhetorical question – asking a question, not for the purpose of eliciting an answer but for the purpose of asserting or denying something obliquely Irony – use of a word in such a way as to convey a meaning opposite to the literal meaning of a word Onomatopoeia – use of words whose sound echoes the sense Paradox – an apparently contradictory statement that nevertheless contains a measure of truth 34

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Classroom Resources

"Asean Johnson: We Are Black and We Are Proud." YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kGwM-p86zw8 (accessed July 16, 2014).

"Challenger: President Reagan's Challenger Disaster Speech." YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?Qa7icmqgsow (accessed July 14, 2014).

"Learn the Address." Learn the Address: Home. http://www.learntheaddress.org (accessed July 16, 2014).

1. Roach, Joseph. "Viva Voce". 110.

2. Coker, Jr., David, and Eileen Erwin. "Teaching Academic Argument in an Urban Middle School: A Case Study of Two Approaches". 36.

3. Bitter G, and Melissa Pierson. Using Technology in the Classroom. 100.

4. Allen, Rick. "Leveraging Technology to Improve Literacy"

5. Safire, William. Lend me your ears: great speeches in history . 95.

6. Kennedy, John F,. and Theodore C. Sorensen. Let the word go forth: The speeches, statements and writings of John F. Kennedy

7. Wills, Gary. Lincoln at Gettysburg: The words that remade America . 56.

8. Ibid. 171

9. Ibid. 158.

10. Safire. 696

11. Safire 697

12. Roosevelt, Franklin. "Miller Centrer: Fireside Chat #8: On Farmers and Laborers".

13. Fields, Wayne. Union of Words . 306.

14. Raphael, Timothy. The President Electric . 97.

15. Roosevelt

16. Fields. 306.

17. Fields. 305

18. Safire. 696.

19. Kennedy, John. "American Rhetoric: John F. Kennedy Address on the Space Program at Rice University".

20. Noonan, Peggy. On Speaking Well . 85-86.

21. Ibid. 83-84.

22. Ibid. 86.

23. Lopez-Cirugeda, Isabel, and Raquel Sanchez-Ruiz. "Persuasive Rhetoric in Barak Obama's Immigration Speech: Pre and Post-Electoral Strategies". 96.

24. Ibid. 95.

25. Obama, Barak. "Remarks by the President on Comprehensive Immigration Reform".

26. Brewer, Jan. "Governor Jan Brewer Address Upon Signing Arizona SB 1070"

27. " National Press Club Luncheon with Antonio Villaraigosa Mayor of Los Angeles"

28. "Improving Educational Choice and Competition; Keynote by Governor Bobby Jindal". The Brookings Institution.

29. Warren, Elizabeth. "Floor Speech on Minimum Wage Vote".

30. Cruz, Ted. "The Minimum Wage Act Hurts the Most Vulnerable Among Us".

31. Warren.

32. The Trust for Public Land. Advertisement.

33. McDonalds. Advertisement.

34. Corbett, Edward, P. J. and Robert Connors. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student . 409-411.

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10 Unexpected Texts To Analyze: #NCTEchat’s Top Picks!

@NCTE was kind of enough to archive the chat for us here , should you be interested in perusing the conversation. Among the topics discussed – most pertaining to engagement, popular culture, and teaching argument – the one that struck me as most practical and actionable was “Q5: What is an unexpected text (an article, essay, song, film, etc.) that you’d recommend we analyze in our classrooms?”

What follows is a list of ten suggestions made by #NCTEchat participants that, I’m certain, will inspire you to engage your students with the stuff of argument and rhetorical analysis in a host of new and creative ways.

I’ll also take this opportunity to plug SecondaryELA.com – a brand new marketplace (like Teachers Pay Teachers) built by secondary ELA teachers, exclusively for secondary ELA teachers. I encourage you to head over, check out the resources, and post your own rock star lessons for your fellow ELA teachers to peruse!

Now, on to those great ideas:

#1. Students’ Political Perspectives.

@BaritoneBlogger described a project in which his students, who happen to reside in a “blue” state, engaged in a post-election discussion with students who reside in “red” states. While this kind of activity is meaningful in and of itself – for helping to foster students’ understanding of community, to shed light on the ever-evolving American identity, and so on – the conversations generated by this discussion also make for rich texts that can be analyzed! The same techniques that work for a rhetorical analysis of MLK apply here, too: Are there deliberate repetitions? Specific language that is used or avoided? Loaded terms? Other devices? And talk about authenticity!

#2. Art as Argument.

#3. analyzing social media..

In today’s world, the ability to intelligently navigate social media is an imperative skill for success. Although your students most likely can’t take a class on this (yet), you can certainly help them to understand the use of language and rhetoric across social platforms. (Donald Trump’s proclivity for Twitter has really highlighted this notion for us, hasn’t it?) Kudos to @Joe_OSuch for raising this point during our chat! If you’re looking to get a leg up on this, you can check out TeachArgument’s Twittorical Analysis materials, or sign up to keep up with new social media analysis lessons!

#4. Analyzing Letters.

@ImanHallam suggested analyzing personal letters for tone analysis and argument. What better medium to analyze through a rhetorical lens than a form that, by definition, has a clear sender (speaker), recipient (audience), message, and purpose? Personal letters or emails work well, as do correspondences between famous historical figures. Interdisciplinary analysis, here we come!

#5. Popular Movie Speeches.

@SusanClaireB suggested using popular movie speeches for analysis. Why? Because they’re expertly crafted to engage, to persuade, and to have blockbuster appeal! My mind immediately goes to Independence Day, but the list is endless. Head over to AmericanRhetoric.com to explore a hefty list of popular movie speeches, or better yet, ask your students to select a speech to analyze and present to the class themselves!

#6. Acceptance Speeches.

Acceptance speeches are everywhere. @MrsKlinkReads recommended using NBA or NFL acceptance speeches – something our athletes are sure to love – but any awards ceremony (The Oscars, The Grammy Awards, and so on) will do the trick!

#7. Podcasts!

As podcasts continue to mature as a genre, their production quality continues to improve, as does their infiltration of mainstream culture. It’s very likely that your students listened to, if not at least heard of, Serial . @MardieTeach suggested using podcasts such as “This American Life” to create rich listening experiences for students, as well as to provide students with complex audio-texts that lend themselves quite nicely to rhetorical analysis.

I’m personally a big fan of using podcasts for “independent listening” – sort of like independent reading, but with an emphasis on critical thinking and analysis. If you’re looking for a compelling new summer assignment for your kiddos, a podcast-based assignment may be the way to go! Consider TeachArgument’s Serial materials to help you get the ball rolling!

#8. Comics!

@90SecondNewbery suggested using comics, like Ms. Marvel , to engage students in rhetorical analysis while fostering a love for reading (and learning) through new literacies. I immediately think of Chabon’s The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay (a novel you’ll love if you’re interested in comic book culture), and old school comics of Superman or Captain America taking on the Nazi regime. A simple Google Image search will yield dozens of rich comic frames that your students will love to analyze. (If American propaganda in 1940s comics for kids doesn’t make for a great lesson, what does?) Likewise, political cartoons and graphic novels make for equally complex texts, with modern relevance. All worth checking out!

#9. Emails From Students.

Another very authentic source of argument writing that we as in no short supply of — student emails! Particularly those that were written with the intention to create some kind of change (rather than those pesky emails asking clarifying questions the night before an assignment is due … although, I suppose there is an argument to be analyzed in there, too…). @KristinRunyon suggested utilizing grade request emails (with all identifying information removed, of course) and unpacking their effectiveness through a lens of rhetorical analysis. But be forewarned – the quality of your students’ emails requesting grade bumps may be significantly impacted by this kind of activity!

#10. Memes!

I was totally surprised by the widespread discussion of memes – as vehicles for delivering student feedback, as devices for helping students to memorize important content, and as argumentative texts that can be unpacked in an academic and analytical fashion. Kudos to @MrsSearcy112 and @LyricalSwords for raising these points during #NCTEchat!

I know I’ll be sifting through the web, collecting memes for rhetorical analysis purposes with my kiddos, and making use of meme-generators to craft my own memetic arguments.

If you’re interested in receiving FREE materials that put these rockstar ideas to good use, sign up here ! The sooner you sign up, the more #NCTEchat inspired lessons are sure to hit your inbox!

Already put some of these ideas to use? Share you best lessons with your secondary ELA colleagues at SecondaryELA.com !

Close Reading and Rhetorical Analysis of Kanye’s “Hurricane”

Close reading and rhetorical analysis of luke combs’ “forever after all”, the teachargument roadmap: engage your students all year, join the teachargument community to gain instant access to all of our pop culture lesson plans and teaching resources now.

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21 Uplifting and Powerful Famous Speeches That You Can’t Miss

Life is not always rainbows and sunshine – we have all had days when nothing seems to be going as planned and when we find ourselves demotivated, bogged down and engulfed in sadness. On such days, when you are unable to motivate yourself, do you know what helps? Listening to great speeches — empowering ones.

Great communicators have this innate power of moving you with their brilliant command over words. Their words echo in your head for days, while filling you with hope and inspiration.

Isn’t it wonderful how just hearing a set of people who you’ve never met or known personally can leave you with such a lasting impression?

Here is a list of 21 famous speeches (and likely the best speeches) that are sure to give you goosebumps :

1. Steve Jobs’ Commencement Address at Stanford University, 2005

The Chairman and Co-Founder of Apple Inc., Steve Jobs delivered an inspiring commencement address at the graduation ceremony of the 114th batch of Stanford University. 13 years later, his speech still holds relevance.

In a span of 15 minutes, Jobs imparted crucial life lessons through 3 stories that were inspired from his personal experiences. From love and loss to the inevitability of death – his words resonated with people of all ages.

Ending on a high note, he advised the audience to “stay hungry, stay foolish” – a phrase that became synonymous with Steve Jobs and till today, drives people to push themselves to become better versions of themselves.

2. J.K. Rowling’s Commencement Address at Harvard University, 2008

Author J.K Rowling who is best known for the Harry Potter book series delivered an empowering speech to the graduating class at Harvard University in 2008. Her speech was centered around two key points.

First being the benefits of failure and how there can be no success without it. Second, was the power of imagination and how we carry all the power in ourselves to change the world.

Even though J.K Rowling might have touched upon topics that we have been listening to or reading about for years, her knack of putting it together so perfectly strikes a chord like nothing else.

3. Jim Carrey’s Commencement Address at Maharishi University, 2014

Jim Carrey, who is known for his splendid comic timing and exceptional performances, took everyone by surprise at the graduation ceremony of the class of 2014 at Maharishi University wherein he delivered an inspiring speech with such aplomb.

In his life-changing advice wrapped in wit and humor, he speaks of fear, failure and the importance of doing what we love.

4. Barack Obama’s Election Victory Speech, 2008

Who doesn’t remember Obama chant “Yes we can!” as the entire world looked on and watched him inspire and instill national pride in the people of the United States of America.

One of the most powerful speeches of recent times, Barack Obama’s election victory speech in 2008 marked a historic moment that brought hope, promised change and responsibility, in the anticipation of a better future.

5. Martin Luther King’s ‘I Have a Dream’ Speech, 1963

On 28th August 1963, Martin Luther King delivered one of the most iconic speeches in history during the March on Washington in front of over 250,000 people at the Lincoln Memorial.

An American activist, Martin spoke with utmost clarity and purpose as he made a plea for racial equality and justice through this speech. The words “I have a dream” reiterated his vision of what America could be – a country that breaks away from the shackles of discrimination.

6. Mahatma Gandhi’s ‘Do or Die Speech, 1942

Talking about orators, one cannot leave Mahatma Gandhi out from the list. Gandhi, the pioneer of non-violence launched the Quit India movement to demand India’s freedom from the 200-year British colonial rule wherein he announced the slogan – Do or Die, with determination.

His speech oozed infectious passion which went on to inspire India to fight for freedom or die in the process.

7. Nelson Mandela’s ‘I Am Prepared to Die’ Speech, 1964

The torchbearer of Africa’s freedom, Nelson Mandela fought all his life against apartheid. During his 3-hour long speech as a defendant at the Rivonia trial, he uttered the powerful words “I am prepared to die” which showed how he was willing to go to any length to grant equality to the people of Africa.

Even though he got imprisoned for 27 years shortly after, his speech did leave a tremendous impact.

8. Ellen DeGeneres’ Commencement Address at Tulane University, 2009

The multi-talented Ellen DeGeneres never fails to disappoint with whatever she does and the same can be said about her commencement address at Tulane University, where she shared her experiences and learning with the graduating class.

From quoting Lady Gaga to speaking about the major turning points in her life – Ellen kept the audience hooked with her uplifting speech.

9. Michelle Obama’s Commencement Address at Eastern Kentucky University, 2013

Michelle Obama addressed the 2013 graduating class of Eastern Kentucky University. She challenged the graduates to seek and learn from different perspectives and turn their weaknesses into strengths, just the way she did.

She also highlighted the importance of volunteering in community services and the impact it has on our lives.

10. Sheryl Sandberg’s Commencement Address at Harvard Business School, 2012

Chief Operating Officer of Facebook, Sheryl Sandberg imparted wisdom to the graduating class of 2012 of Harvard Business School.

While drawing parallels to her own experiences, Sheryl shared observations and precious advice with the students. She ended the speech on a humorous note as she said,

“Tomorrow, you get something that Mark Zuckerberg does not have. A Harvard degree.”

11. Oprah Winfrey’s Commencement Address at Harvard University, 2013

Oprah Winfrey is known to stir people’s emotions and motivate them with her powerful words. During her commencement address at Harvard, she emphasized on learning from mistakes and embracing failure, while reflecting on the setbacks she faced. Her encouraging words serve as a reminder to never let failure bog you down.

12. Bill Gates’ Commencement Address at Harvard Business School, 2007

Microsoft founder, Bill Gates addressed Harvard Business School’s class of 2007, urging them to change the world, eradicate poverty and tackle inequality. He emphasized on the role of technology in putting an end to global issues and encouraged students to take risks and not get intimidated by ‘complexities’.

13. Malala Yousafzai’s Address at the UN Youth Takeover, 2013

Activist Malala Yousafzai is an inspiration to many and her speech at the first ever UN Youth Takeover further reinforces that.

Malala, who was just 16 years old then, stunned the audience with her powerful and moving take on the right to quality education. Having seen difficult times during her childhood, she was determined to fight for what she believed in and inspire a change.

14. Winston Churchill’s ‘We Shall Fight on the Beaches’ Speech, 1940

Another famous speech is that delivered by Winston Churchill, on 4th June 1940 to the House of Commons. The speech was meant to instill courage in the people during World War II, while the threat of Nazi invasion loomed over England.

He kept his speech concise, realistic and to the point as he reminded everyone about the strength and perseverance England has always exhibited.

15. Hillary Clinton’s Address at the Women in The World Summit, 2015

Calling women the ‘agents of change’, Hillary Clinton delivered a passionate speech at the Women in the World summit, speaking about the struggles women face in all walks of life due to unequal rights.

While remaining optimistic about seeing a positive change in future, she spoke about issues that often go overlooked such as equal pay, reproductive rights, paid maternity leave, living wage, LGBTQ rights, affordable child care among others.

16. Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address, 1863

The Gettysburg Address, delivered by Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War, is known as one of the greatest speeches in the world and makes a fundamental part of American history.

In just 272 words, Lincoln made valid arguments surrounding equality and concluded with the famous line,

“government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”

17. Elizabeth Gilbert’s ‘Your Elusive Creative Genius’ TED Talk, 2009

Known for the international bestseller, ‘Eat, Pray, love’, Elizabeth Gilbert gave an inspiring TED Talk wherein she shared her wisdom on creativity.

She spoke about the pressures it comes with and how one can go beyond what society says and connect with the ‘genius’ that resides in each one of us.

18. Jawaharlal Nehru’s ‘Tryst with Destiny’ Speech, 1947

The first prime minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru addressed India on the eve of independence with the speech, Tryst with Destiny. This historic speech celebrated the non-violent victory, acknowledging the struggle that had gone behind it and the belief he has in India, as a powerful, independent nation.

19. Mark Zuckerberg’s Commencement Address at Harvard University, 2017

The Founder and CEO of Facebook, Mark Zuckerberg addressed the 2017 graduating class of Harvard University.

Being a Harvard dropout, Mark commenced the speech by recalling his times spent at Harvard and how they shaped him. His thought-provoking talk highlighted the importance of purpose – finding our own and creating one for others. He left the audience with practical advice that ranged from tackling global issues to building communities.

20. Gloria’s Steinem’s Women’s March Speech, 2017

Feminist icon, Gloria Steinem, addressed over 500,000 women who gathered at the Women’s March in Washington DC, with fearlessness and conviction.

She took on topics plaguing the society such as the role of women in the world and equal rights, while sending a bold message to the government to not undermine the power of women.

21. Denzel Washington’s Commencement Address at University of Pennsylvania, 2011

“Fall forward,” – the two words that encompassed Oscar-winning actor Denzel Washington’s commencement address at University of Pennsylvania in 2011. He encouraged students to take failure in the right spirit and never let it discourage them. He beautifully summarized why we must embrace failure, while recalling experiences during his growing up days.

Final Thoughts

Even though these best speeches stem from different premises, what binds them together is the wonderful feeling they leave you with.

Each of these famous short speeches contains the power to strike an emotional chord and help you find your feet amidst all the chaos. So, take a page from their books and let their words inspire you to keep going and never lose hope.

More Inspiring Thoughts

20 Most Inspiring TED Talks Of All Time You Should Not Miss
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50 Positive Quotes for Work That Will Put Your Motivation on Overdrive
You Are What You Listen To: 11 Podcasts To Inspire Yourself

Featured photo credit: Matthias Wagner via unsplash.com

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Words at Ease

6 Speech Examples for Student Council

Are you running for student council and need some inspiration for your campaign speech?

Look no further!

As a seasoned speech writer with three decades of experience, I’m here to guide you through the process of crafting a compelling speech that will win over your fellow students.

Speech Examples for Student Council

In this article, you’ll find six sample speeches of varying lengths, each tailored to different occasions and audiences.

Whether you’re aiming for a short and sweet introduction or a lengthier, more detailed address, these examples will provide you with the building blocks to create a speech that truly resonates with your peers.

Let’s explore the sample speeches:

Speech 1: Introducing Yourself and Your Vision

Good morning, everyone! My name is [Your Name], and I’m running for the position of [Position] in our student council. I believe that our school has the potential to be an even more incredible place, and I want to work with all of you to make that happen.

As your [Position], I will focus on three main goals: increasing student engagement, improving communication between the student body and the administration, and creating a more inclusive and welcoming environment for everyone. Together, we can make our school a place where every student feels valued, heard, and supported.

I’m excited to bring my passion, dedication, and leadership skills to this role, and I hope to earn your vote. Let’s work together to build a brighter future for our school community!

— END OF SPEECH —

Commentary: This short speech is perfect for introducing yourself and your vision to the student body. It’s concise, yet it touches on key points that will resonate with your audience. This speech is ideal for a brief campaign introduction or a quick address during a school assembly.

Speech 2: Addressing a Specific Issue

Hello, fellow students. Today, I want to talk about an issue that affects many of us: the lack of healthy food options in our school cafeteria. As your potential [Position], I believe we must work together to ensure that every student has access to nutritious meals that fuel their bodies and minds.

If elected, I will collaborate with the administration and the cafeteria staff to introduce a wider variety of healthy food choices, such as fresh fruits and vegetables, whole grain options, and lean proteins. I will also advocate for the inclusion of vegetarian and vegan options to cater to the diverse dietary needs and preferences of our student body.

Additionally, I plan to organize educational workshops and events that promote healthy eating habits and teach students about the importance of proper nutrition. By working together, we can create a school environment that prioritizes the health and well-being of every student.

Thank you for your time, and I hope to have your support in the upcoming election.

Commentary: This medium-length speech focuses on a specific issue that is relevant to the student body. It demonstrates the candidate’s understanding of the problem and presents concrete solutions. This speech is suitable for a more detailed campaign address or a debate on school-related issues.

Speech 3: Encouraging Student Involvement

Good afternoon, everyone. As we all know, student involvement is the heart and soul of our school community. It’s what makes our school an engaging and meaningful place to learn and grow. That’s why, as your potential [Position], I want to make student involvement my top priority.

If elected, I will work tirelessly to create more opportunities for students to get involved in extracurricular activities, clubs, and events. I believe that every student should have the chance to explore their passions, develop new skills, and connect with like-minded peers.

To achieve this goal, I will collaborate with the administration, faculty, and student leaders to organize a wide range of activities that cater to diverse interests and talents. From sports and arts to community service and academic clubs, there will be something for everyone.

Moreover, I will ensure that these opportunities are accessible to all students, regardless of their background or financial situation. I will advocate for funding and resources to support student-led initiatives and provide the necessary equipment and materials.

By fostering a culture of student involvement, we can create a stronger, more connected school community where every student feels valued and empowered to make a difference.

So, let’s work together to make our school a place where every student can thrive and reach their full potential. Vote for [Your Name] for [Position], and let’s unleash the power of student involvement!

Commentary: This long speech emphasizes the importance of student involvement and presents the candidate’s plan to create more opportunities for students to engage in extracurricular activities. It’s an inspiring and motivational speech that can be used for a longer campaign address or a school-wide event promoting student participation.

Speech 4: Promoting Diversity and Inclusion

Hello, my fellow students. Today, I want to talk about a topic that is close to my heart: diversity and inclusion. As your potential [Position], I believe that our school should be a place where every student, regardless of their race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, religion, or ability, feels welcomed, respected, and valued.

Diversity is what makes our school community rich and dynamic. It brings together different perspectives, experiences, and ideas, which are essential for growth, learning, and innovation. However, diversity without inclusion is meaningless. That’s why we need to actively work towards creating an inclusive environment where every student feels a sense of belonging and has equal opportunities to succeed.

If elected, I will make diversity and inclusion a top priority. I will collaborate with the administration, faculty, and student leaders to develop and implement policies and programs that promote equity and combat discrimination and bias.

Some of the initiatives I plan to introduce include:

Organizing diversity and inclusion workshops and training sessions for students, faculty, and staff.
Establishing a diversity and inclusion committee that will work towards identifying and addressing issues related to equity and inclusion in our school.
Advocating for a more diverse and inclusive curriculum that represents the experiences and perspectives of marginalized communities.
Creating safe spaces and support groups for students who may feel marginalized or excluded.
Celebrating diversity through cultural events, festivals, and awareness campaigns.

By working together to promote diversity and inclusion, we can create a school community where every student feels valued, respected, and empowered to be their authentic selves.

So, let’s embrace our differences, celebrate our diversity, and build an inclusive school culture that uplifts and supports every student. Vote for [Your Name] for [Position], and let’s make our school a place where everyone belongs.

Commentary: This long speech addresses the important topic of diversity and inclusion in the school community. It presents a compelling case for why diversity and inclusion matter and outlines specific initiatives the candidate plans to introduce if elected. This speech is suitable for a campaign focused on promoting equity and social justice or for a school event celebrating diversity.

Speech 5: Advocating for Mental Health Support

Good morning, everyone. Today, I want to talk about an issue that affects many of us, yet often goes unspoken: mental health. As students, we face a lot of pressure and stress – from academics and extracurricular activities to social relationships and personal challenges. It’s easy to feel overwhelmed, anxious, or even depressed at times.

That’s why, as your potential [Position], I believe that our school should prioritize mental health support for all students. We need to create a culture where it’s okay to talk about mental health, where seeking help is encouraged, and where resources and support are readily available.

If elected, I will work closely with the administration, counselors, and mental health professionals to develop a comprehensive mental health support system for our school. This will include:

Increasing access to mental health resources, such as counseling services, support groups, and crisis hotlines.
Organizing mental health awareness campaigns and events to reduce stigma and promote open conversations about mental health.
Advocating for the integration of mental health education into our curriculum, so students can learn about coping strategies, stress management, and emotional well-being.
Creating a peer support network where students can connect with and support each other.
Ensuring that our school policies and practices prioritize student mental health and well-being.

By prioritizing mental health support, we can create a school environment where every student feels supported, valued, and empowered to take care of their emotional well-being.

So, let’s work together to break the silence around mental health, and build a school community that promotes resilience, compassion, and well-being for all. Vote for [Your Name] for [Position], and let’s make mental health a priority.

Commentary: This lengthy speech tackles the critical issue of mental health support in schools. It highlights the importance of creating a culture that prioritizes mental health and outlines specific initiatives the candidate plans to implement if elected. This speech is suitable for a campaign focused on student well-being or for a school event raising awareness about mental health.

Speech 6: Envisioning a Sustainable Future

Hello, fellow students. As we look to the future, it’s clear that sustainability and environmental responsibility must be at the forefront of our minds. As your potential [Position], I believe that our school has a crucial role to play in shaping a sustainable future – not just for ourselves, but for generations to come.

The challenges we face are difficult – from climate change and resource depletion to pollution and waste. But I believe that our school community has the power to make a difference. By working together, we can transform our school into a model of sustainability and inspire others to follow our lead.

If elected, I will make sustainability a top priority. I will work with the administration, faculty, and student leaders to develop and implement a comprehensive sustainability plan for our school. This plan will include:

Reducing our school’s carbon footprint by implementing energy-efficient practices, such as using renewable energy sources and improving insulation.
Promoting waste reduction and recycling through education campaigns and the installation of recycling bins throughout the school.
Encouraging sustainable transportation options, such as biking, walking, and carpooling, and advocating for better public transportation access.
Integrating sustainability education into our curriculum, so students can learn about the environmental challenges we face and the solutions we can implement.
Creating a student-led sustainability committee that will work to identify and address sustainability issues in our school and community.

By taking action on sustainability, we can not only reduce our environmental impact but also create a healthier, more resilient school community. We can inspire others to join us in the fight against climate change and environmental degradation.

So, let’s come together to build a sustainable future – one where we can thrive in harmony with the planet. Vote for [Your Name] for [Position], and let’s make sustainability a way of life at our school.

Commentary: This lengthy speech focuses on the urgent issue of sustainability and environmental responsibility. It presents a vision for transforming the school into a model of sustainability and outlines specific initiatives the candidate plans to implement if elected. This speech is suitable for a campaign centered on environmental issues or for a school event promoting sustainability and eco-friendliness.

To sum up, crafting a compelling student council speech requires a combination of passion, vision, and strategic thinking.

By focusing on issues that matter to your fellow students, presenting concrete solutions, and delivering your message with confidence and authenticity, you can inspire your peers to support your candidacy and join you in creating positive change in your school community.

Keep in mind, that the key to a successful speech is to connect with your audience on a personal level.

Share your own experiences, listen to the concerns of your fellow students, and demonstrate your commitment to making a difference.

Use these sample speeches as a starting point, but don’t be afraid to infuse your personality and unique perspective into your words.

Your speech should reflect who you are and what you stand for.

So, go out there and give it your all! With hard work, dedication, and a compelling message, you can win the hearts and minds of your fellow students and become a strong voice for positive change in your school.

Good luck, and may the best candidate win!

Decoding Content Moderation: Analyzing Policy Variations Across Top Online Platforms

Every day, millions of users scroll through content on Instagram, Tiktok, and Facebook. Each one of these platforms has their own particular methods for scanning and regulating the posted content for misinformation, which is crucial for balancing user safety and freedom of speech. However, in the United States, platforms are not subject to legal constraints regarding their content moderation methods, which leads to each platform developing their own policies, with very little consistency across the board.

Research scientist Arjun Bhagoji and 5th year Ph.D. student Brennan Schaffner , under the mentorship of Neubauer Professor Nick Feamster , Associate Professor Marshini Chetty , Assistant Professor Chenhao Tan and Professor Genevieve Lakier from the UChicago Law School, wanted to investigate the specific methods each platform utilized to moderate their content and prevent misinformation. In their recent paper titled “Community Guidelines Make this the Best Party on the Internet”: An In-Depth Study of Online Platforms’ Content Moderation Policies , which was published at CHI ‘24 , Bhagoji and Schaffner (along with several undergraduate co-authors) presented the first systematic study of these content moderation policies from the 43 largest online platforms that host user generated content, with a specific focus around copyright infringement, harmful speech, and misleading content.

The team focused on figuring out the mechanisms by which companies claim they moderate content, and what happens when violating content is found. A question of particular interest was if companies do explicitly acknowledge the use of automated techniques, since these take away some of the burden on human moderators.

In order to isolate and identify the relevant portions of a given policy, they developed a policy annotation scheme. “One of the strong contributions of this paper is that we developed a principled annotation scheme, which outlines what we considered the policies’ critical components,” Schaffner comments. “We investigated each platform to find: How is problematic content found? What happens when it’s found? Do moderated users receive explanations, punishment, and/or means of appeal? By keeping a lens on the policies’ critical components, we were able to compare across popular platforms and uncover components that sites were frequently missing, such as explaining what rights were given to moderated users or what justifications platforms used to back up their chosen policies.”

Before they could annotate the text to create the main contribution of the paper, which is a publicly available annotated dataset , Bhagoji and Schaffner had to build a custom web-scraper to obtain policy text. One of their greatest challenges was figuring out how to create a web crawler that would identify all of the content moderation-related passages on a page, as modern pages are tricky to scrape, employing anti-scraping measures such as “dynamically-loading” elements, rate-limiting, and IP blocking.

“When pages are dynamically loaded, the page only loads when, for example, you scroll down on the page, or if it knows that the page is being accessed by a human,” Bhagoji explained. “So if you try to access the page in an automated manner, which is what we did, the page doesn’t load and we just get some sort of error. We spent almost six months building out our scraper to make sure that we hit every single page on these sites that mention relevant content moderation policy. We had to manually verify a fair amount of information.”

Through months of scraping and manual verification, their team found significant structural and compositional variation in policies across all topics and platforms. Even beyond the well-known platforms like Facebook and X, there are many other platforms in the top 43 that are still used by hundreds of millions of users. Section 230 , a law that protects social media companies from being liable for the content posted on their platforms, has led to platforms essentially regulating themselves, and resulted in their role as what Schaffner calls “the de facto regulators of the Internet”.

Bhagoji and Schaffner also worked with Professor Genevieve Lakier from the UChicago Law School on this project.

“Another reason why this work is important is because a lot of these policies have terms of service statements that are very legal-coded and not user friendly,” Schaffner added. “Part of our ability to analyze these data all together at once, which makes some of the legal pieces more accessible for researchers and users. Professor Lakier helped us with the annotation scheme, to cut through some of the legal jargon, and understand what was structurally important for our study. Since she’s a First Amendment scholar, we were also able to lay out the history of how content moderation has evolved in the United States.”

With Lakier’s help, Bhagoji and Schaffner realized that few, if any, companies made actionable claims in their content moderation policies, particularly regarding hate speech and misinformation. The latter was rarely even defined, making it difficult for platform users to determine how and why certain content was moderated or not. They found that these platforms rarely explicitly state how their content moderation policies are enforced, except in the case of copyright, where the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) provides an explicit legal grounding.

For example, Bhagoji states, “A lot of companies claim that they use AI and other automated tools to do the moderation. However, other investigative reports have shown that these companies actually hire underpaid labor in the Global South to do this work. One of the key findings of our paper is that it is challenging to figure out who actually uses the machine learning systems, so we can figure out if they are any good by externally auditing them.”

Bhagoji has already moved on to the next phase of this project, which is an audit study that involves diving in depth into one platform’s content moderation tools. He is cross-referencing their effectiveness against their stated policies as found in this paper to study their effectiveness. He hopes that other researchers can join in the effort to include other forms of moderation and look at platforms that they haven’t touched on.

Once he finishes the last piece of his dissertation — targeting user agency and manipulative platform design — Schaffner also plans to build on this work by investigating user perceptions of and experiences with content moderation leveraging the breadth of this new dataset.

To learn more about their work, please visit the AIR lab and the NOISE lab pages.

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