research paper of animal cruelty

Extending Animal Cruelty Protections to Scientific Research

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INTRODUCTION

On November 25, 2019, the federal law H.R. 724 – the Preventing Animal Cruelty and Torture Act (PACT) prohibiting the intentional harm of “living non-human mammals, birds, reptiles, or amphibians” was signed. [1] This law was a notable step in extending protections, rights, and respect to animals. While many similar state laws existed, the passing of a federal law signaled a new shift in public tone. PACT is a declaration of growing societal sentiments that uphold the necessity to shield our fellow creatures from undue harm. Protecting animals from the harm of citizens is undoubtedly important, but PACT does nothing to protect animals from state-sanctioned harm, particularly in the form of research, which causes death and cruelty. It is time to extend and expand protections for animals used in research.

There is a long history of animal experimentation in the US, but no meaningful ethical protections of animals emerged until the 20 th century. Proscription of human experimentation and dissection led to animals bearing the brunt of harm for scientific and medical progress. For instance, English physician William Harvey discovered the heart did not continuously produce blood but instead recirculated it; he made this discovery by dissecting and bleeding out living dogs without anesthesia. [2] Experiments like this were considered ethically tenable for hundreds of years. Philosophers like Immanuel Kant, Thomas Aquinas, and Rene Descartes held that humans have no primary moral obligations to animals and that one should be concerned about the treatment of an animal only because it could indicate how one would treat a human. [3] During the 20 th century, as agriculture became more industrialized and government funding for animal research increased, the social demand for ethical regulations finally began to shift. In 1966, the Animal Welfare Act (Public Law 89-544) marked the first American federal legislation to protect laboratory animals, setting standards for use of animals in research. [4]

There has been progress in the field of animal research ethics since Harvey’s experiments, but much work remains. In the US alone, there are an estimated 20 million mice, fish, birds, and invertebrates used for animal research each year that are not regulated by the Animal Welfare Act. [5] Instead, the “3Rs Alternatives” approach (“reduce, replace, and refine”) [6] is one framework used to guide ethical treatment of animals not covered by federal protections. Unfortunately, unpacking the meaning and details of this approach only leads to ambiguity and minimal actionable guidance. For instance, an experimenter could reduce the number of animals used in research but subsequently increase the number of experiments conducted on the remaining animals. Replace could be used in the context of replacing one species with another. Refining is creating “any decrease in the severity of inhumane procedures applied to those animals, which still have to be used.” [7] The vague “ any ” implies that even a negligible minimization would be ethically acceptable. [8] An experimenter could technically follow each of the “3Rs” with minimal to no reduction in harm to the animals. One must also consider whether it is coherent to refer to guidelines as ethical when they inevitably produce pain, suffering, and death as consequences of research participation.

Other ethical guides like Humane Endpoints for Laboratory Animals Used in Regulatory Testing [9] encourage researchers to euthanize animals that undergo intractable pain or distress. This is a fate that an estimated one million animals face yearly in the US. [10] However, to use the word “humane” in this context contradicts the traditional meaning and undermines the integrity of the word. Taking living creatures, forcing them to experience intractable pain and suffering for human benefit, and killing them is the antithesis of what it means to be humane. During one of my Animal Ethics classes as a graduate student, our cohort visited an animal research facility to help inform our opinions on animal research. We observed one of the euthanasia chambers for lab mice – an enclosed metal lab bench with a sign above describing methods for euthanasia if CO 2 asphyxiation were to fail. The methods included decapitation, removal of vital organs, opening of the chest cavity, incision of major blood vessels, and cervical dislocation. [11] Behind us were rows and rows of see-through shoebox-sized containers housing five mice in each little box. Thousands of mice were packed together in this room for the sole purpose of breeding. If the mice were not the correct “type” for research, then they were “humanely” euthanized. “Humane,” in this context, has been deprived of its true meaning.

One can acknowledge that animal research was historically necessary for scientific progress, but those that currently claim these practices are still required must show empirically and undoubtedly this is true. As of now, this is not a settled issue. In the scientific community, there is contention about whether current animal research is actually applicable to humans. [12] Many drug researchers even view animal testing as a tedious barrier to development as it may be wholly irrelevant to the drug or medical device being tested. Since 1962, the FDA has required preclinical testing in animals; it is time to question whether this is necessary or helpful for drug development.

The scientific community should stop viewing animal testing as an unavoidable evil in the search for medical and technological innovation. PACT should be amended and extended to all animals and the FDA should modify the requirement for preclinical animal testing of all drugs and medical devices. It is time to encourage the scientific community to find alternative research methods that do not sacrifice our fellow animals. We use animals as test subjects because, in some sense, they resemble humans. But, if they are indeed like humans, they should receive similar protections. Science builds a better world for humans, but perhaps it is time for science to be more inclusive and build a better world for all creatures.

[1] Theodore E. Deutch, “Text - H.R.724 - 116th Congress (2019-2020): Preventing Animal Cruelty and Torture Act,” legislation, November 25, 2019, 2019/2020, https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/724/text.

[2] Anita Guerrini, “Experiments, Causation, and the Uses of Vivisection in the First Half of the Seventeenth Century,” Journal of the History of Biology 46, no. 2 (2013): 227–54.

[3] Bernard E. Rollin, “The Regulation of Animal Research and the Emergence of Animal Ethics: A Conceptual History,” Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 27, no. 4 (September 28, 2006): 285–304, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11017-006-9007-8; Darian M Ibrahim, “A Return to Descartes: Property, Profit, and the Corporate Ownership of Animals,” LAW AND CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS 70 (n.d.): 28.

[4] Benjamin Adams and Jean Larson, “Legislative History of the Animal Welfare Act: Introduction | Animal Welfare Information Center| NAL | USDA,” accessed November 3, 2021, https://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/legislative-history-animal-welfare-act-introduction.

[5] National Research Council (US) and Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on the Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research, Patterns of Animal Use , Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research (National Academies Press (US), 1988), https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK218261/.

[6] Robert C. Hubrecht and Elizabeth Carter, “The 3Rs and Humane Experimental Technique: Implementing Change,” Animals: An Open Access Journal from MDPI 9, no. 10 (September 30, 2019): 754, https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9100754.

[7] Hubrecht and Carter.

[8] Hubrecht and Carter.                           

[9] William S. Stokes, “Humane Endpoints for Laboratory Animals Used in Regulatory Testing,” ILAR Journal 43, no. Suppl_1 (January 1, 2002): S31–38, https://doi.org/10.1093/ilar.43.Suppl_1.S31.

[10] Stokes.

[11] “Euthanasia of Research Animals,” accessed April 21, 2022, https://services-web.research.uci.edu/compliance/animalcare-use/research-policies-and-guidance/euthanasia.html.

[12] Neal D. Barnard and Stephen R. Kaufman, “Animal Research Is Wasteful and Misleading,” Scientific American 276, no. 2 (1997): 80–82.

Chad Childers

MS Bioethics Candidate Harvard Medical School Center for Bioethics

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Documenting Harm to the Voiceless: Researching Animal Abuse

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This chapter considers how harms against nonhuman animals have been documented in criminological research, associated challenges and implications for future research. The development of animal abuse research is examined and contributions from studies identifying, defining and measuring harm to nonhuman animals are discussed. It finds that although animal welfare laws exist in most countries, legislation typically addresses a few crimes against some nonhuman animals. Protections are limited because most harms are legal, falling outside the remit of mainstream criminology. Historically, few criminological studies have adopted an animal-centred nonspeciesist approach, contributing to a legacy of speciesism in social institutions, academia included. The development of animal abuse and critical animal studies challenges the status quo, greatly expanding concepts of victimology, while highlighting a broader spectrum of harms including interpersonal violence and everyday routine harms which exploit and kill nonhuman animals in their millions. These studies shine a light on the voiceless long-suffering nonhuman animal victims and the unique challenges facing animal abuse researchers.

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Editors’ Introduction

Animal sexual assault, animal hoarding.

The rating produced by World Animal Protection involves a ranking of 50 countries according to their legislation and policy commitments to protecting animals (e.g. recognising animal protection, governance structures and systems, animal welfare standards, providing humane education and promoting communication and awareness). The Global Animal Law database ranks countries according to existing animal laws, civil code provisions and constitutional principles.

Other legislation exists which provides a lower standard of protect to other animals, such as the UK Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981 (see Nurse 2012 ).

See the RSCPA explanation of the five freedoms at https://www.rspca.org.uk/whatwedo/endcruelty/changingthelaw/whatwechanged/animalwelfareact .

In 1999, a protocol which explicitly recognised nonhuman animals as sentient beings was incorporated into the Lisbon Treaty (Article 13 of Title II). The UK has no legal instrument other than Article 13 of the Lisbon Treaty to legally recognise that nonhuman animals are sentient beings. In the aftermath of the UK vote to exit the EU, the Bill to transfer this protocol on nonhuman animal sentience into UK law, brought to Parliament on 15 November 2017, failed to be passed. Consequently, there is no legal recognition of nonhuman animal sentience in the UK.

Human-like rights does not equate to human rights for animals. For a more detailed discussion on rights for animals, see Regan ( 2004 ).

For example, Luke et al. ( 1997 ) study concluded that animal abusers were: five times more likely to commit violence against people; four times more likely to commit property crimes; and three times more likely to be involved in drunken or disorderly offenses. These results were determined from the criminal records of 153 intentional animal abusers prosecuted by the MSPCA, compared to the criminal history of a control group of offenders of the same size.

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The recognition within UK welfare legislation of animals as objects to which we have a duty of care is in stark contrast to their treatment elsewhere in law—as inanimate objects or possibly subjects to control. Lawson ( 2019 ) identifies how some controls can lead directly to the destruction of ‘dangerous’ or ‘unwanted’ dogs. These dogs are vilified and treated as subjects accountable for the risk they might pose to humans even if the risk is created by the poor standards of care provided by humans from birth.

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Maher, J. (2021). Documenting Harm to the Voiceless: Researching Animal Abuse. In: Davies, P., Leighton, P., Wyatt, T. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Social Harm. Palgrave Studies in Victims and Victimology. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72408-5_8

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Published : 03 September 2021

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Animal abuse as an indicator of domestic violence: one health, one welfare approach.

Simple Summary

1. introduction, 2. material and methods, 3. animal cruelty as an indicator of domestic violence, 4. risk factors for the development of animal cruelty in children, 4.1. empathy, 4.2. callous-unemotional traits, 5. warning signs of the potential for domestic violence and animal abuse, 6. animal cruelty and animal protection laws, 7. one health, one welfare approach, 8. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Mota-Rojas, D.; Monsalve, S.; Lezama-García, K.; Mora-Medina, P.; Domínguez-Oliva, A.; Ramírez-Necoechea, R.; Garcia, R.d.C.M. Animal Abuse as an Indicator of Domestic Violence: One Health, One Welfare Approach. Animals 2022 , 12 , 977. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12080977

Mota-Rojas D, Monsalve S, Lezama-García K, Mora-Medina P, Domínguez-Oliva A, Ramírez-Necoechea R, Garcia RdCM. Animal Abuse as an Indicator of Domestic Violence: One Health, One Welfare Approach. Animals . 2022; 12(8):977. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12080977

Mota-Rojas, Daniel, Stefany Monsalve, Karina Lezama-García, Patricia Mora-Medina, Adriana Domínguez-Oliva, Ramiro Ramírez-Necoechea, and Rita de Cassia Maria Garcia. 2022. "Animal Abuse as an Indicator of Domestic Violence: One Health, One Welfare Approach" Animals 12, no. 8: 977. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12080977

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• DOI: 10.1111/J.1540-4560.2009.01614.X
• Corpus ID: 145755057

People and Animals, Kindness and Cruelty: Research Directions and Policy Implications

• F. Ascione , Kenneth J. Shapiro
• Published 1 September 2009
• Environmental Science, Law, Psychology, Sociology
• Journal of Social Issues

95 Citations

Investigating animal abuse: some theoretical and methodological issues, examining the links between animal abuse and human violence, place-based differences in the commission of recurrent animal cruelty, animal abuse: offender and offence characteristics. a descriptive study, human-animal bonds i: the relational significance of companion animals., the rescuers: intersections of individual and group activism and the recognition of the human-animal “link”, the relations among animal abuse, psychological disorders, and crime: implications for forensic assessment., bystanders’ reactions to animal abuse in relation to psychopathy, empathy with people and empathy with nature, animal abuse issues in psychotherapy, rediscovering connections between animal welfare and human welfare: creating social work internships at a humane society, 95 references, animal abuse, cruelty, and welfare: an australian perspective, cruelty to animals and interpersonal violence : readings in research and application, an investigation into the association between the witnessing of animal abuse and adolescents' behavior toward animals, linking domestic violence, child abuse, and animal cruelty, the relationship between bullying and animal abuse behaviors in adolescents: the importance of witnessing animal abuse., children and animals: exploring the roots of kindness and cruelty, exposure to animal abuse and group context: two factors affecting participation in animal abuse, animal abuse and exposure to interparental violence in italian youth, forensic investigation of animal cruelty: a guide for veterinary and law enforcement professionals., unraveling the methods of childhood and adolescent cruelty to nonhuman animals, related papers.

Showing 1 through 3 of 0 Related Papers

The Link Between Animal Cruelty and Human Violence

• Featured Articles
• Legal Digest
• Perspective
• Additional Articles

By Charlie Robinson, M.A., M.S., and Victoria Clausen, M.A.

Photo on the homepage was provided by Commonwealth Media Services, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.

The roles animals play in society are widespread, ranging from beloved family pets providing comfort, to law enforcement dogs tracking missing persons, to service animals providing critical assistance. Animals are part of nearly everyone’s life in some aspect. Unfortunately, as seen with children, without a voice of their own, animals are among the most vulnerable in society. This vulnerability places them at high risk for animal cruelty — intentional, harmful behavior such as neglecting or killing an animal.

Historically, animal cruelty has been considered an isolated issue, but recent research shows a well-documented link that it is a predictive or co-occurring crime with violence against humans (including intimate partners, children, and elders) and is associated with other types of violent offenses. Increased awareness of this linkage and a collaborative approach to these investigations strengthens the identification and reduction of such crimes. 1

Recognizing animal cruelty as a serious violent offense has slowly developed over time. In the late 19th century, child abuse and animal welfare were closely associated within independent programs. However, during the 20th century, the government began to oversee child protection services, and private humane societies undertook animal welfare. 2 This separation hindered the acknowledgement of the correlation between animal cruelty and domestic violence. As time has progressed, an increasing number of fields have acknowledged the correlation and seriousness of these crimes. 3

Interpersonal Violence Implications

Many people frequently assume individuals begin hurting animals and then progress to humans. While this may be true in some instances, it is not the case for all offenders. One study found that 16% of offenders started abusing animals and graduated to violent crimes against humans. However, in many circumstances, offenders start by hurting other humans and then progress to harming animals. 4

Companion animals can be a source of comfort to victims of domestic abuse. Unfortunately, the abuser often exploits this bond to manipulate, control, and punish victims. To create fear and control, the abuser may threaten, hurt, or kill the animal. Cruelty to the animal may be used to convince the victim to return to a violent relationship, keep the victim isolated, financially control the victim, or coerce the victim into staying. Further, the offender may physically harm the animal to psychologically punish the victim or to remind the victim that the abuser can assert physical force to maintain dominance and control. 5 Often, the abused partner will choose to stay in the violent situation out of concern for the pet’s safety. 6

Seventy-five percent of abused women who have companion animals report a history of their companion animal being threatened or intentionally harmed by their intimate partner, with children being present and witnessing the violence over 90% of the time. 7

Other studies have shown that half of all children are exposed to animal cruelty at some point in their lives. 8 Children who are exposed to interpersonal violence (IPV) at home are 60 times more likely to suffer emotional maltreatment and physical abuse or neglect. These circumstances place children at an increased risk of perpetuating the cycle of violence in the future due to desensitization and the belief that violence is an acceptable way to resolve interpersonal conflict. 9

Domestic violence offenses not only occur in an intimate partner setting but often occur simultaneously or are precursors to other types of violent offenses. Animal cruelty is a predictor of current and future violence, including crimes of assault, rape, murder, arson, domestic violence, and sexual abuse of children. 10 For example, the majority of IPV victims who report co-occurring animal cruelty are also concerned the abuser eventually will kill them and should be considered at extremely high risk of suffering severe injury or death. 11

Further, animal cruelty is a better predictor of sexual abuse compared to a history of homicide, arson, or weapon convictions. 12 Being cognizant of this link allows for law enforcement to recognize that animal cruelty indicates other possible offenses are occurring in the household. 13

Significant Legislation

Victims fearing their animals will be harmed or killed is a significant factor in keeping them stuck in the cycle of violence. To help remove this barrier, the Pet and Women Safety (PAWS) Act was signed into law in December 2018. The PAWS Act aims to help domestic violence shelters by providing housing assistance to the human and animal victims of domestic violence. 14

This legislation empowers the victims of IPV by giving them an opportunity to protect their companions. Further, it involves protection of animals in interstate stalking, protection order violations, and restitution as well as allows victims to include pets in protection orders. The PAWS Act also increases the number and capacity of safe havens to meet the needs of domestic violence survivors. 15

" ... law enforcement leaders ... should ensure officers understand the broad scope of these cases and engage specific entities that work crimes possibly associated with animal cruelty. ... "

Safe Havens

Safe havens are shelter services that assist victims and their companion animals. Depending on the safe haven, victims and animals stay together in the same space or the animals are housed through local humane societies in a kennel or temporary foster care. Locating a safe haven can be the key to assisting victims of domestic violence. The Animal Welfare Institute developed a mapping resource to locate safe havens across the United States: https://awionline.org/content/safe-havens-mapping-project-pets-domestic-violence-victims.

In 2010, the Animal Crush Video Prohibition Act banned the distribution of animal “crush” videos that show the torture and killing of animals. Crush videos often feature a provocatively dressed woman crushing, stomping, or impaling small animals for the sexual pleasure of the viewers. However, the act did not outlaw the underlying cruelty itself. This changed in November 2019 with the Preventing Animal Cruelty and Torture (PACT) Act. 16

The PACT Act is a federal law that prohibits the purposeful crushing, burning, drowning, suffocation, impalement, or other violent acts committed against animals, allowing the prosecution of crimes that affect interstate commerce or occur under federal jurisdictions. This is the first federal animal cruelty law giving law enforcement another tool to stop brutality by building upon the existing animal cruelty laws available at the state level.

Each of the 50 states currently have a felony animal cruelty law, but the definition of animal cruelty and the penalties for violent offenses vary from state to state. Most of these laws focus on companion animals, such as dogs and cats, but some states include birds, horses, and other animals. 17

Animal Fighting

Animal cruelty is a multifaceted issue with a wide range of potential offenses, one of the most prominent being animal fighting. It is important that law enforcement leaders bring awareness to the various dynamics of animal cruelty and animal fighting. To that end, they should ensure officers understand the broad scope of these cases and engage specific entities that work crimes possibly associated with animal cruelty (e.g., drugs, money laundering, and weapons violations).

Dogfighting is one of the most serious forms of animal cruelty that occurs throughout the country. An average dogfight lasts 1 to 2 hours, ending when one of the dogs is not able to continue. Most of the dogs used in fighting are pit bull terriers, which can be bred for their stamina and ability to fight with dogs, compared to the majority of breeds that stop fighting once they reach exhaustion. In addition, this breed is not prone to aggression against humans and is intensely loyal, which contributes to their willingness to withstand abuse and neglect from their owners. 18

Cockfighting is another type of animal fighting spectator “sport.” Razor-sharp steel blades, or “gaffs,” are attached to the bird’s legs prior to the fight. These blades are so sharp and dangerous that bird handlers have accidently been killed by their own birds. During a cockfight, gamecocks are placed into a fighting pit until the death of one or both birds. While the average free-range or domesticated bird will fight over necessities, those fights rarely result in serious injury. Within the world of cockfighting, the birds are bred specifically for aggression and forced to fight. 19

The participants drawn to the thrill of animal fighting are axiomatically woven into the world of drugs, money laundering, illegal weapons, and illegal gambling. Nearly every dogfighting raid involves the discovery and seizure of illegal drugs, and two-thirds of cases involve the seizure of illegal weapons. 20 In addition, the U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency has prosecuted various cases involving drug cartels trafficking narcotics though dogfighting and cockfighting enterprises. 21

The 1966 Animal Welfare Act prohibits the selling, buying, transporting, delivery, exhibiting, or sponsoring of an animal for the purpose of animal fighting. 22 Upgraded to a felony offense in 2009, animal fighting and the possession of an animal for the purpose of fighting is illegal in all 50 states.

Additionally, the Farm Bill, signed into law in 2014, amends the existing law and not only targets those responsible for putting the fights together but also contains the elemental Animal Fighting Spectator Prohibition Act. This act made it a federal offense to knowingly attend an animal fight anywhere in the United States and instituted additional charges for bringing a child under the age of 16 to an animal fight. 23

Financial gain frequently lures individuals to dogfighting. During major dogfight raids, law enforcement has seized more than $500,000; it is not unusual for $20,000-$30,000 to change hands in a single fight. 24 In addition, the potential exists for thousands of dollars in profit from breeding and selling the dogs.

Dogfighting rings are often built with the goal of developing a bloodline that accentuates aggression and vigor. 25 Out of these top bloodlines, one puppy alone can be sold for up to $5,000. 26 Dogfighting tends to lure juveniles as part of gang involvement and draws many offenders seeking power and control to dominate an aggressive dog or use the animals to show their own perceived power over others. When faced with defeat, the owner loses money and social status, which sadly often leads to aggression being taken out on the losing dog. 27 The losing dog may be thrown out, left to die, or killed by the owner. 28 Officers armed with an awareness of these various dynamics of animal fighting can more thoroughly address investigations and report case information as appropriate.

National Incident-Based Reporting System Data

In 2016, the FBI’s National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) began collecting detailed case information on animal cruelty incidents from participating law enforcement agencies. 29 Designated as a Group A Offense, animal cruelty is defined as:

Intentionally, knowingly, or recklessly taking an action that mistreats or kills any animal without just cause, such as torturing, tormenting, mutilation, maiming, poisoning, or abandonment. Included are instances of duty to provide care, e.g., shelter, food, water, care if sick or injured; transporting or confining an animal in a manner likely to cause injury or death; causing an animal to fight with another; inflicting excessive or repeated unnecessary pain or suffering, e.g., uses objects to beat or torture an animal. This definition does not include proper maintenance of animals for show or sport; use of animals for food, lawful hunting, fishing, or trapping. 30

The definition highlights animal cruelty crimes as an independent category, emphasizing the importance of investigating and charging these offenses. 31 Within NIBRS, animal cruelty encompasses the following four categories: simple/gross neglect, intentional abuse and torture, organized abuse, and animal sexual abuse. While the definition and categories of animal cruelty are meant to encompass all state statutes, if an incident within the local jurisdiction meets the definition and criteria for animal cruelty, it should be submitted to NIBRS. 32

Prior to 2016, animal cruelty was grouped within “All Other Offenses” in NIBRS, which did not allow for specific analysis of the animal cruelty data. 33 While it may take several years, the data will provide integral insight to law enforcement and other stakeholders. For instance, the data will be able to clarify who is committing animal cruelty offenses, the most common jurisdictions in which animal cruelty is occurring, and associations with other types of crime. By answering these questions, stakeholders can identify areas to expend resources and improve law enforcement training. 34

Based on preliminary analysis of NIBRS data from 2018, there were 4.43 animal cruelty incidents nationally per 100,000 of the population, compared to 106.68 for assault, 65.77 for robbery, and 799.40 for drug offenses. 35 However, not every law enforcement agency reports data to NIBRS, and animal control agencies or humane organizations not recognized as law enforcement agencies often investigate animal cruelty, resulting in unreported data. To ensure availability of the most accurate data in NIBRS, law enforcement should develop relationships with these entities. The National Council on Violence Against Animals provides a sample memorandum of understanding for law enforcement to assist in building those relationships. 36

While the data from NIBRS will be imperative in studying animal cruelty, current research studies have used other data sources. For example, researchers examined the demographic and criminal characteristics of 150 adult males arrested for animal cruelty. The mean age of the offenders included in the study was 37, with 41% arrested at least once for interpersonal violence, 18% for a sex offense, and 28% for different interpersonal crimes (e.g., violating a restraining order or harassment). 37

"Having background knowledge of the link between animal cruelty and violence can make a considerable difference in an investigation. ... "

Investigative Considerations

In 2010, the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) conducted a research study focusing on law enforcement and its role in animal cruelty investigations. The study found approximately one-fifth of law enforcement officers stated they had received animal cruelty training. Less than half were familiar with animal cruelty laws, and only one-third said they knew the penalties of those laws. Further, the study identified three obstacles law enforcement professionals face when involved with animal cruelty cases.

• Dearth of knowledge regarding animal cruelty cases
• Leadership seeing animal cruelty cases as a low priority
• Lack of facilities for housing animals kept as evidence 38

As it pertains to dogfighting, the ASPCA conducted an additional study in 2015 that found while half of law enforcement officers reported they encountered dogfighting, only 23% said their department had the resources and training necessary to investigate those cases. 39 More than half surveyed stated they received no training on investigating dogfighting cases, and 40% said limited resources are a factor in investigating dogfighting.

Multidisciplinary, Cross-Reporting Approach

Having a thorough understanding of animal cruelty, the associated investigations, and the applicable codes is essential — not only for the success of animal cruelty cases but other cases as well. Officers will possibly encounter multiple moving parts and overlapping investigations when they suspect animal cruelty or another crime that indicates animal cruelty. A multidisciplinary, cross-reporting approach to animal cruelty as well as to other crimes involved with animal cruelty creates an opportunity to save lives. 40

Having background knowledge of the link between animal cruelty and violence can make a considerable difference in an investigation, and several key agencies can work together in a multidisciplinary team to achieve this goal. Child protective services, animal protection groups, veterinarians, domestic violence shelters, medical providers, and law enforcement share a unique opportunity to create an integrative approach to investigations and the link. Establishing relationships will help with educating each other, being proactive, and identifying resources.

Dogfighting cases often require considerable resources and collaboration between law enforcement, animal protection, and forensic animal welfare specialists. Several states have assembled multidisciplinary task forces to combat animal fighting. 41 The ASPCA has developed a Blood Sports Unit, and the University of California-Davis Veterinary Genetics Laboratory has developed a canine CODIS system to assist in identifying and connecting DNA evidence to build stronger dogfighting cases for law enforcement investigations and prosecutions. 42

Agencies must investigate claims of animal cruelty because if not taken seriously, they have the potential for an adverse ripple effect. Law enforcement and child protection service employees often are the ones who see animals and children in neglectful situations. Cross-reporting statutes and training are being implemented throughout the country to enable those in a multitude of fields to report abuse. 43 Moreover, some states have cross-reporting laws permitting or even requiring adult and child protective services to report suspected animal cruelty or signs of it. These statutes permit sharing information between law enforcement, social services, and animal care providers that pertains to animal or human abuse. 44

For those interacting with victims of abuse, asking about animals and the welfare of those animals allows these parties to discover other types of family violence. Victims of abuse may be hesitant or reluctant to talk about their own abuse. However, they may be willing to talk about the abuse their pets have experienced. 45 When talking with victims of abuse, officers should be specific when asking questions, such as “How are the animals treated?” and “What happens if the animal gets in trouble?” Officers should observe how those in the household interact with the pets and how the pets behave. In addition, they should ask the children indirect questions about their experience with the animals. 46

Additional Resources

Numerous training courses and materials are available to law enforcement, many of which are free. The National District Attorneys Association created a guide titled “Investigating and Prosecuting Animal Abuse” that provides extensive information for law enforcement officers. 47  In addition, the ASPCA worked with the U.S. Department of Justice’s Community Oriented Policing Services Office to create an online course on dogfighting as well as additional guides for law enforcement and investigators on the topic. Similarly, the Humane Society of the United States offers a course titled “Investigative Considerations Concerning Animal Crime Violations” to law enforcement departments across the country.

• NIBRS User Manual: https://awionline.org/sites/default/files/publication/digital_download/AWI-CA-NIBRS-Manual.pdf
• ASPCA online courses: https://www.aspcapro.org/training-online-courses/national-field-response-online-courses
• The Justice Clearing House online courses: https://justiceclearinghouse.com/calendar-page/
• National Link Coalition: https://nationallinkcoalition.org/  
• Janette Reever, Senior Specialist, Global Anti-Dogfighting Program
• Doug Bridges, Special Agent, USDA-Office of Inspector General
• Ethan Eddy, Trial Attorney, U.S. Department of Justice Environmental Crimes Section
• Animal Welfare Institute guidelines for speaking with children: https://awionline.org/content/children-and-animals-risk

"Agencies must investigate claims of animal cruelty because if not taken seriously, they have the potential for an adverse ripple effect."

Veterinary Considerations

Law enforcement agencies should consider building relationships with veterinarians and their staff because they are in a unique situation to observe neglect and abuse in both animals and clients who bring the animals in for evaluation. Veterinarians subsequently will know who to contact within law enforcement when they see instances of animal cruelty. Likewise, they may be able to alert authorities of specific circumstances within the family.

Veterinarians may see clinical signs that indicate abuse in their animal patients, such as varying states of healing fractures after performing an X-ray, and it is their duty to evaluate if the injury matches the explanation of the client. While assessing animals, veterinarians are also evaluating family dynamics, the home environment, and concerns of the clients. They can identify red flags and implement protocols to assist those in need, both animal and human. However, not all practices have protocols in place for these instances. 48

Currently, 20 states have mandatory reporting laws pertaining to animal cruelty, while the rest recognize it as a moral duty within the code of Principles of Veterinary Medical Ethics. Most states either require mandatory reporting, have a voluntary reporting law that allows veterinarians the authority to break patient confidentiality, or provide companion immunity to protect against civil, sometimes criminal, liability from reporting the cruelty. 49

Law enforcement has the capability to strengthen investigations by developing and maintaining relationships across a diverse range of disciplines that encounter animal cruelty. Creating a multidisciplinary team allows law enforcement to examine situations from numerous perspectives elemental in identifying, preventing, and stopping animal cruelty and criminal activity. Understanding the correlation between animal cruelty and violence brings law enforcement one step closer to saving the lives of both animals and humans.

"Understanding the correlation between animal cruelty and violence brings law enforcement one step closer to saving the lives of both animals and humans." 

Additional Investigative Strategies

Law enforcement can employ additional investigative strategies when investigating animal cruelty and other crimes that may occur with animal cruelty. Dr. Melinda Merck, a forensic veterinarian, outlined several items to consider.

• Use what is in plain sight as probable cause for a search warrant. For example, are there devices indicative of dogfighting?
• Use animal cruelty charges as a “strike” or as leverage.
• Keep in mind that within domestic violence situations, the offender can be charged with animal cruelty as a separate offense.
• Based on their training and experience, veterinarians will see crime scenes differently than law enforcement. For example, they will be more familiar with what should or should not be present when it comes to animals. Without proper training, items may be missed. Officers who encounter a suspected animal cruelty crime scene should consider contacting a veterinarian or animal control officer for assistance. The Humane Society of the United States has a representative in every state who can assist in locating a veterinarian or forensic expert. 50

Ms. Robinson, a family nurse practitioner, previously served as a research fellow with the FBI’s Behavioral Analysis Unit. She can be reached at [email protected] .

Ms. Clausen serves as a crime analyst with the FBI’s Behavioral Analysis Unit.

1 Phil Arkow, “Recognizing and Responding to Cases of Suspected Animal Cruelty, Abuse, and Neglect: What the Veterinarian Needs to Know,” Veterinary Medicine: Research and Reports, no. 6 (November 2015): 349-359, accessed January 26, 2021, http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/VMRR.S87198. 2 Catherine A. Faver and Elizabeth B. Strand, “Domestic Violence and Animal Cruelty: Untangling the Web of Abuse,” Journal of Social Work Education 39, no. 2 (2003): 237-253, accessed January 26, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2003.10779134 . 3 Ibid. 4 Arnold Arluke et al., “The Relationship of Animal Abuse to Violence and Other Forms of Antisocial Behavior,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 14, no. 9 (September 1999): 963-975, accessed January 26, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1177/088626099014009004 . 5 Harold Hovel, The Connection Between Animal Abuse and Human Violence (Kingston, NY: New York State Humane Association, 2019), accessed January 26, 2021, https://www.nyshumane.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Hovell-H-Animal-Abuse-Web-print-2-2020-edition-OPTIM-ToC-revised3.pdf. 6 “Facts and Myths About Domestic Violence and Animal Abuse,” Animal Welfare Institute, accessed January 26, 2021, https://awionline.org/content/facts-and-myths-about-domestic-violence-and-animal-abuse . 7 Shelby McDonald et al., “Intimate Partner Violence Survivors’ Reports of Their Children’s Exposure to Companion Animal Maltreatment: A Qualitative Study,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 34, no. 13 (July 2019): 2627-2652, accessed January 26, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516689775 . 8 Clifton Flynn, “Examining the Links Between Animal Abuse and Human Violence,” Crime, Law and Social Change 55, no. 5 (June 2011): 453-468, accessed January 26, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-011-9297-2 . 9 Andrew M. Campbell et al., “Intimate Partner Violence and Pet Abuse: Responding Law Enforcement Officers’ Observations and Victim Reports from the Scene,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence  36, no. 5-6 (March 2018): 1-20, accessed January 26, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518759653; and Hovel. 10 Hovel; and Amber R. Macias-Mayo, “The Link Between Animal Abuse and Child Abuse,” American Journal of Family Law 32, no. 3 (Fall 2018): 130-136, accessed August 2, 2021,  https://www.wbmhlaw.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Article-The-Link-Between-Animal-Abuse-and-Child-Abuse.pdf. 11 Campbell et al. 12 National Link Coalition, The Link Between Violence to People and Violence to Animals (Stratford, NJ: National Link Coalition), accessed January 26, 2021, https://nationallinkcoalition.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/LinkSummaryBooklet-16pp.pdf. 13 National Sheriffs’ Association, Animal Cruelty as a Gateway Crime (Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, 2018), accessed January 26, 2021, https://cops.usdoj.gov/RIC/Publications/cops-w0867-pub.pdf . 14 “Pet and Women Safety (PAWS) Act,” Animal Welfare Institute, accessed January 26, 2021, https://awionline.org/content/pet-and-women-safety-paws-act. 15 Ibid. 16 “Preventing Animal Cruelty and Torture (PACT) Act,” Animal Welfare Institute, accessed January 26, 2021, https://awionline.org/content/preventing-animal-cruelty-and-torture-pact-act . 17 “Laws That Protect Animals,” Animal Legal Defense Fund, accessed January 26, 2021, https://aldf.org/article/laws-that-protect-animals/. 18 Hovel. 19 “Cockfighting Fact Sheet,” The Humane Society of the United States, accessed January 26, 2021, https://www.humanesociety.org/resources/cockfighting-fact-sheet. 20 U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, and American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals,  Dogfighting: A Guide for Community Action,  Randall Lockwood, November 2012, 7, accessed August 4, 2021,  https://cops.usdoj.gov/ric/Publications/cops-w0682-pub.pdf. 21 “Dogfighting,” Humane Society International, accessed January 26, 2021, https://www.hsi.org/issues/dogfighting/. 22 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal Welfare Act, 2020, accessed August 2, 2021, https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/animalwelfare/awa/ct_awa_program_information . 23 “Animal Fighting Spectator Prohibition Act,” Animal Welfare Institute, accessed August 2, 2021, https://awionline.org/content/animal-fighting-spectator-prohibition-act. 24  Lockwood. 25 Wethal. 26 James M. Lewis, “The Violent Underworld of Dog Fighting,” DVM360,  July 1, 2007, accessed August 2, 2021,  https://www.dvm360.com/view/violent-underworld-dog-fighting. 27 Lockwood. 28 Hovel. 29 U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Tracking Animal Cruelty: FBI Collecting Data on Crimes Against Animals,” February 2016, accessed January 26, 2021, https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/-tracking-animal-cruelty. 30 U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Uniform Crime Reporting Program, National Incident-Based Reporting System, NIBRS Offense Definitions, 2018, accessed January 26, 2021, https://ucr.fbi.gov/nibrs/2018/resource-pages/nibrs_offense_definitions-2018.pdf. 31 Mary L. Randour et al., “Animal Abuse as a Type of Trauma: Lessons for Human and Animal Service Professionals,” Trauma, Violence, & Abuse 22 ,  no. 2 (May 2019): 277-288, accessed January 26, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838019843197 . 32 National Coalition on Violence Against Animals, NIBRS User Manual for Animal Control Officers and Humane Law Enforcement (Alexandria, VA: National Coalition on Violence Against Animals), accessed January 26, 2021, https://ncovaa.org/nibrs-manual/. 33 Randour et al. 34 Greg Cima, “FBI Gathers Animal Cruelty Data, But Patterns Have Yet to Emerge,” American Veterinary Medical Association, March 2019, accessed January 26, 2021, https://www.avma.org/javma-news/2019-04-15/fbi-gathers-animal-cruelty-data-patterns-have-yet-emerge. 35 “Animal Cruelty Reporting Scorecard,” Animal Welfare Institute, accessed January 26, 2021, https://awionline.org/content/animal-cruelty-reporting-scorecard. 36 DeSousa. 37 Lacey Levitt, Tia A. Hoffer, and Ann B. Loper, “Criminal Histories of a Subsample of Animal Cruelty Offenders,” Aggression and Violent Behavior 30 (2016): 48-58, accessed January 26, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2016.05.002. 38 “ASPCA Announces Groundbreaking Research Study Underscoring Importance of Animal Cruelty Law Enforcement,” American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, December 2010, accessed January 26, 2021, https://www.aspca.org/about-us/press-releases/aspca-announces-groundbreaking-research-study-underscoring-importance-animal. 39 “ASPCA Poll Reveals Law Enforcement Officers Lack Resources, Training to Properly Address Dog Fighting,” American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, April 2015, accessed January 26, 2021, https://www.aspca.org/about-us/press-releases/aspca-poll-reveals-law-enforcement-officers-lack-resources-training-properly. 40 Olivia S. Garber, “Animal Abuse and Domestic Violence: Why the Connection Justifies Increased Protection,” The University of Memphis Law Review 47 (2016): 359-389, accessed January 26, 2021, https://www.memphis.edu/law/documents/olivia_garber.pdf; and Charlotte Lacroix, “Another Weapon for Combating Family Violence: Prevention of Animal Abuse,” Animal Law 4, no. 1 (1998): 1-32, accessed January 26, 2021, https://www.animallaw.info/sites/default/files/Weapon%20for%20Combating%20Family%20Violence.pdf. 41 Lockwood. 42 Wethal. 43 Garber. 44 Michigan State University, Animal Legal & Historical Center,  Cross-Reporting Laws for Child Abuse and Animal Abuse,  accessed August 4, 2021,  https://www.animallaw.info/intro/cross-reporting-laws-child-abuse-and-animal-abuse;  and Garber. 45 Garber. 46 Alberta Girardi and Joanna D. Pozzulo, “The Significance of Animal Cruelty in Child Protection Investigations,” Social Work Research 36, no. 1 (July 2012): 53-60, accessed January 26, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svs012 . 47 Allie Phillips and Randall Lockwood, Investigating and Prosecuting Animal Abuse: A Guidebook on Safer Communities, Safer Families and Being an Effective Voice for Animal Victims, National District Attorneys Association, 2013, accessed January 26, 2021, http://www.ncdsv.org/images/NDAA_Investigating-and-prosecuting-animal-abuse_2013.pdf. 48  Arkow. 49  Rebecca F. Wisch, “Table of Veterinary Reporting Requirement and Immunity Laws,” Michigan State University College of Law, 2020, accessed January 26, 2021, https://www.animallaw.info/topic/table-veterinary-reporting-requirement-and-immunity-laws . 50 M. Merck, personal communication, May 28, 2020.

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Animal Cruelty, Its Causes and Impacts Research Paper

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Literature Review

Socio-cultural and environmental causes of animal cruelty, effects of animal cruelty with special focus on the ethical effects, solutions and recommendations to animal cruelty problems.

Research has proved that animal cruelty has been on the rise for the last two decades due to the increase of human population globally. The competition between animals and human beings for survival has influenced animal cruelty. In most cases, animals are trained through intimidation as they are severely beaten up like they don’t have feelings. A good example is presented in animals performing in circuses like the elephants that spend close to 23 hours every day in chains.

American scientists subject animals into dangerous complications while they use them to test new inventions especially in the medical arena. Like 25 million vertebrates in America are used to perform medical tests per year (Lockwood, 1998). Various researches indicate an increased rate in animal cruelty thus necessitating the need for viable measures to be taken accordingly by the relevant authorities.

In this paper I will discuss the different cause’s animal cruelty and their impacts on social, culture as well as environment. Animal cruelty is an ethical question as well as being of potential economic concern. This will be deliberated upon in this paper to determine how cruelty affects the economic growth and undermines ethical standards. In the body also I will be tackling and providing evidences concerning general causes of animal cruelty.

In the second part of the body, I will be more specific on the effects of animal cruelty in respect to ethics. I will base my argument on the number of unnecessary deaths in animal parks and reserves. I will show the dangers of neglecting animals including the most prevalent one where extinction can be a possible result.

Other general effects of animal cruelty will also feature in my discussion. The third part of my research involves solutions and recommendations to address the issues of animal cruelty. I will split my recommendations into social, cultural, environmental and ethical solutions to solve the issue. I will also offer legal solutions that can be used to deal with this issue.

Animal cruelty includes every aspect of human behaviors that have a negative impact on animals or threaten the life and wellbeing of an animal. This encompasses intentional and unintentional behaviors that affect the animals. Human activities most of the time undermine the harmonious existence of animals in so many aspects.

Animal cruelty can be described as physically causing harm to an animal or deprive an animal of the basics needs such as food, water, shelter the freedom to interact with other animals that is animal socialization and subjecting an animal to torture ( Ingrid, 1999). Other ways through which animal cruelty can take effect are when animals are denied veterinary care. Animal cruelty has been categorized as a form of disorder and unstable behavior seen in people who have been subjected to violence.

Some of the abuses animals are subjected to include dog fighting and cock fighting. Animals are subjected to painful identification marks which are put using extremely hot metals on the surface of their bodies. This is done without a pain relievers or anesthesia. Animal cruelty is seen especially while an animal is being taken to the slaughter house. If the animal is injure on the way or it becomes tired, they ear bitten up and moved unassisted due to the fact that they are headed to death.

Other abuses included breading animals for food consumption. A good example is that of broiler chicken that are raised to grow fat through genetic modifications. This is done not considering the effects it has on the birds and animals generally but with the selfish human ambition to impress buyers. Electric cattle prods have been in use for a long time now. This is an electric gadget that used to induce an electric shock on cattle to make them move.

This gadget transmits electric currents on the animal’s body and even though the voltage is very low to kill, it is enough to cause pain on the animal. Social causes of cruelty are the most reported forms of animal cruelty. People with mental disorders are mostly prone to mishandling animals though most of time unknowingly. This may include causing harm to the animal without really intending to do so.

For example, due to mental inability to weigh and reason out, a mentally challenged person may chain his or her pet dog with a very short chain. What the person does not understand is the fact that the dog needs to move freely around the compound. This kind of behavior is quit cruel and unfair to the pet.

Immaturity is another cause of cruelty where by children goes around throwing stones at animals on the way. Small boys are especially notorious with this behavior. Whenever a child sees a strolling dog or cat for that matter, the first thing that goes into their minds is to pick a stone and chase the animal away.

However there are other individuals who will intentionally cause harm for various reasons with the cruelest one being to derive satisfaction. The most vulnerable animals are the small domesticated animals which most of the times cannot defend themselves. Most of these offenders just enjoy the feeling of dominance hence they keep on harming the animals. With the current increase in population, there has been mounting pressure on land.

Humans are pushing away animals from their habitats due to lack or limited space for human existence. The human race is encroaching into land set out to host wild animals. The population of wild animals is also growing with their land growing smaller due to human encroachment.

This is also mounting pressure on the animal’s existence since they too are growing in numbers. In the process of encroachment, humans are destroying animals shelter and to some extent sources of food (Matas, 2008). This is cruelty and if allowed to go on it will pose a very negative effect to the existence and survival of wild animals. Domesticated animals as well are living in difficult conditions that do not favor their wellbeing at all costs.

Most of the domesticated animals include dogs, cats, chicken, cattle, goats and many others. These animals really require space to play and exercise in an open air. But instead, they are confined in small structured holding where they not even play or move around. This limits and infringes their rights as animals. Some extreme conditions are that the structures used to hold the animals are not well taken care of in terms of decency and cleanliness.

Most of them are unventilated dark places in the back yards where no living thing can confidently survive. In the event that an animal gets sick or feels unwell, medical attention is not easily accorded and sometimes the animal might even die out of an illness that could have been otherwise dealt with. However, animal credulity is not always intentional and in some instances, it happens due to economic factors that are beyond the owner’s ability to solve.

In a situation where an individual owns a pet but he or she cannot afford to provide the medical attention and nutrition needs of the dog, then cruelty may occur though it would be beyond the owner’s ability to address the issue. This is most likely to be seen in the third world countries where the people are not financially capable of financing some the required rights of an animal.

Veterinary services are normally very expensive and may be out of reach to many people in the third world countries. Poverty levels in these countries cannot allow an owner of a pet to even think about thee pets health needs as he or she has enough already to think about with regards to his or her financial needs that are even hard for him.

Animal cruelty has many adverse effects on both the environment and human existence. Focusing mostly on ethical effects, I will base my focus on the use of animals in general. My fundamental objection to the use of animals is influenced by the rampant genetic modification of animals to achieve scientific discoveries.

I specially target this practice considering the fact that the use of animals for such practices contravenes the whole idea of ethics in general not to mention professional and social ethics. Animals just like humans have interests and reasons to live. Compromising the lives of animals to satisfy human interests is just unethical and cruel in all angle of justification. I do not believe that human interests should be put above the interests of animals.

Causing animal’s pain is unacceptable and very cruel to even think about. Genetic modification has been the worst activity that has seen the suffering of animals at the expense of human interest. Genetic modification is unnatural way of altering the DNA formula in an individual living thing. With the widely accepted reasoning that justifies the DNA modification of animals to achieve solutions to human problems, there is one major setback; the results and long-term effects of the modification to the modified animal.

The harm that the modified animal will be exposed to is the main concern of ethics. Changing the genetic makeup of an animal goes as far as to replicate the alterations to its progeny and so on and so forth. This may even give rise to totally different species’ characteristics changing the whole identity of the animal. This might cause other accrued effects that may have global effects. Genetic engineering undermines the integrity of animals with the practice causing welfare problems in animals.

Techniques used to genetically modified animals are to greater extents harmful to the animals. This includes gene deletion which alters the general characteristics of an animal. Animal cruelty has many negative effects on human the animals themselves. Causing injury to animals can adversely affect the animal by increasing aggression (Pierce, 2007).

A dog for example that has been mistreated becomes more aggressive and unfriendly to people due to fear. This makes the animal very hostile and hence affecting its normal welfare.

By physically assaulting animals, several harms can occur; the animal may lose reproductive fitness if its reproductive parts are tampered with during the assault, the animal might develop digestive malfunctioning and nutrition disorders due to loss desire for food, physically assaulting an animal can also result into increased stress hormones in the animal as well as increased heart rate and consequently blood pressure goes up.

Although more than 42 states have in recent times prepared some systems to define animal abuse crimes, anti-cruelty laws are varying extensively from state to state. In the meantime, most public prosecutors are reluctant to charge or impeach animal cruelty offenses equated to other crimes, with the exception of situations where the crimes are extreme.

The unwillingness emanates from a range of aspects comprising of real or apparent inadequate means to do so; inexperienced staff; partial or substandard investigations; pressure from the public to pay attention on other crimes; and prejudice against taking animal exploitation seriously as a violent crime.

Social education on how to treat and handle animals with care should be incorporated in schools and strict measures should be taken to ensure that students uphold them. The authorities should provide the public with toll free numbers for reporting cases of animal cruelty. Most of the time people can see offenders carry out a crime but people do not know what cause of action they can take in regards to reporting the felony.

Sometimes an offender is mistreating his or her own pet but no one can ask them to stop. This can be averted if the relevant authorities can offer help by providing the public with ways and means through which the public can reach them with ease. The public can be more alert and vigilant to watch around the neighborhood for such law offenders. Animal cruelty in most circumstances happens because nobody is watching around and stopping offender.

It is evident even on the streets you can see children throwing stone on a dog and no body passing by can stop them of caution them let alone calling the relevant authorities. Some of the abuses animals are subjected to include dog fighting and cock fighting. Animals are subjected to painful identification marks which are put using extremely hot metals on the surface of their bodies (Weisner & Sheard1993).

This is done without a pain relievers or anesthesia. Animal cruelty is seen especially while an animal is being taken to the slaughter house. If the animal is injure on the way or it becomes tired, they ear bitten up and moved unassisted due to the fact that they are headed to death. Other abuses included breading animals for food consumption. A good example is that of broiler chicken that are raised to grow fat through genetic modifications.

This is done not considering the effects it has on the birds and animals generally but with the selfish human ambition to impress buyers. Electric cattle prods have been in use for a long time now. This is an electric gadget that used to induce an electric shock on cattle to make them move (Weisner & Sheard1993). This gadget transmits electric currents on the animal’s body and even though the voltage is very low to kill, it is enough to cause pain on the animal.

Social causes of cruelty are the most reported forms of animal cruelty. People with mental disorders are mostly prone to mishandling animals though most of time unknowingly. This may include causing harm to the animal without really intending to do so. For example, due to mental inability to weigh and reason out, a mentally challenged person may chain his or her pet dog with a very short chain. What the person does not understand is the fact that the dog needs to move freely around the compound (Reimer, 2007).

This kind of behavior is quit cruel and unfair to the pet. Immaturity is another cause of cruelty where by children go around throwing stones at animals on the way. Small boys are especially notorious with this behavior. Whenever a child sees a strolling dog or cat for that matter, the first thing that goes into their minds is to pick a stone and chase the animal away. However there are other individuals who will intentionally cause harm for various reasons with the cruelest one being to derive satisfaction.

The most vulnerable animals are the small domesticated animals which most of the times cannot defend themselves. Most of these offenders just enjoy the feeling of dominance hence they keep on harming the animals. With the current increase in population, there has been mounting pressure on land. Humans are pushing away animals from their habitats due to lack or limited space for human existence. The human race is encroaching into land set out to host wild animals.

The population of wild animals is also growing with their land growing smaller due to human encroachment. This is also mounting pressure on the animal’s existence since they too are growing in numbers. In the process of encroachment, humans are destroying animals shelter and to some extent sources of food. This is cruelty and if allowed to go on it will pose a very negative effect to the existence and survival of wild animals.

Domesticated animals as well are living in difficult conditions that do not favor their wellbeing at all costs. Most of the domesticated animals include dogs, cats, chicken, cattle, goats and many others. These animals really require space to play and exercise in an open air. But instead, they are confined in small structured holding where they not even play or move around.

This limits and infringes their rights as animals. Some extreme conditions are that the structures used to hold the animals are not well taken care of in terms of decency and cleanliness (Gruen, 2011). Most of them are unventilated dark places in the back yards where no living thing can confidently survive. In the event that an animal gets sick or feels unwell, medical attention is not easily accorded and sometimes the animal might even die out of an illness that could have been otherwise dealt with.

However, animal credulity is not always intentional and in some instances, it happens due to economic factors that are beyond the owner’s ability to solve. In a situation where an individual owns a pet but he or she cannot afford to provide the medical attention and nutrition needs of the dog, then cruelty may occur though it would be beyond the owner’s ability to address the issue. This is most likely to be seen in the third world countries where the people are not financially capable of financing some the required rights of an animal.

Considering the numerous scientific studies, it is imperative to note that emotional harm actually hurts more than the physical harm does and this is true also to animals as well. Animal cruelty has many adverse effects on both the environment and human existence. Focusing mostly on ethical effects, I will base my focus on the use of animals in general.

My fundamental objection to the use of animals is influenced by the rampant genetic modification of animals to achieve scientific discoveries. I specially target this practice considering the fact that the use of animals for such practices contravenes the whole idea of ethics in general not to mention professional and social ethics. Animals just like humans have interests and reasons to live. Compromising the lives of animals to satisfy human interests is just unethical and cruel in all angle of justification.

I do not believe that human interests should be put above the interests of animals. Causing animal’s pain is unacceptable and very cruel to even think about. Genetic modification has been the worst activity that has seen the suffering of animals at the expense of human interest. Genetic modification is unnatural way of altering the DNA formula in an individual living thing.

With the widely accepted reasoning that justifies the DNA modification of animals to achieve solutions to human problems, there is one major setback; the results and long-term effects of the modification to the modified animal. The harm that the modified animal will be exposed to is the main concern of ethics.

Changing the genetic makeup of an animal goes as far as to replicate the alterations to its progeny and so on and so forth. This may even give rise to totally different species’ characteristics changing the whole identity of the animal.

Social education on how to treat and handle animals with care should be incorporated in schools and strict measures should be taken to ensure that students uphold them.

Gruen, L. (2011). Ethics and animals: an introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Ingrid, N. (1999). You can save the animals: 251 ways to stop thoughtless cruelty /Ingrid newkirk. Rocklin, CA: Prima publishing.

Lockwood, R. (1998). Cruelty to animals and interpersonal violence: readings in Research and application / edited by Randall Lockwood and frank R. ascione. West Lafayette, Ind: Purdue University Press.

Matas, R. (2008). Man found guilty of microwaving a cat . New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Pierce, J. (2012). Emotional Pain in Animals: An Invisible World of Hurt . Recognizing the psychological effects of animal abuse. Psychology today. Web.

Reimer, K. (2007). Cruelty. Cruelty to animals. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Weisner, B.P., & Sheard, N.M. (1993) maternal behavior in the rat . Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd.

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Child sex offenses and animal cruelty charges brought in Northampton

Several indictments brought by a Northampton Grand Jury earlier this month were made public Monday following the recent arrests of the two defendants, according to records filed in the circuit court.

Fifty-seven-year-old Charles Walter Robbins, of Cape Charles, was indicted on two Dec. 1, 2023, felony counts of taking indecent liberties with a child under the age of 15, a Feb. 18, 2023, felony count of aggravated sexual battery of a child under the age of 13, and a felony count of attempting to commit the aggravated sexual battery of a child under 13 on the same day. Walters was arrested on Sept. 14

In another case, 25-year-old Tamica Tashay Gunter, of Exmore, was indicted on Sept. 9, on 35 misdemeanor counts of cruelty to animals. More details about the case were not available. The offenses were alleged to have occurred on Aug. 22. Gunter was arrested on Sept 11.

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Canton woman pleads guilty to animal cruelty after abandoning 7 puppies in high temperatures, DA says

ATLANTA, Ga. (Atlanta News First) - A Canton woman has been sentenced to 10 years for animal cruelty, according to the Cherokee County District Attorney’s Office.

Amber Kay Higdon, 31, entered a guilty plea deal on Sept. 12 for seven counts of aggravated cruelty to animals.

According to Cherokee County Marshall’s Office, an investigation found that in July 2023, Higdon left seven puppies in a plastic tote on the side of Pine Lane near Univeter Road in Canton. That day, temperatures reached a high of 95 degrees.

The investigation found that earlier in the day, Higdon tried to surrender the puppies to the Cherokee County Animal Shelter but left after being asked for her license. The driver of the car, also a co-defendant in the case, said that as they were traveling in the vehicle, Higdon got annoyed with the sound of whining puppies and told the driver to pull over.

Higdon left the tote of puppies in the direct sun that day with no food, water or shelter, the district attorney’s office said. The puppies stayed there for more than six hours before a passerby noticed.

An autopsy done by the University of Georgia reports that the puppies died from pulmonary edema, which occurs when there is too much fluid built up in the lungs; pulmonary hemorrhage, which is acute bleeding into the lungs; and cardiac arrest.

“The defendant committed a crime against one of the most vulnerable groups in our society,” Assistant District Attorney Rachel Murphy said in a statement. “Animals rely on us as humans for all their needs, and the defendant discarded these puppies on the side of the road as if they were trash. The defendant’s action led to an extremely painful death for seven innocent puppies, which no living being deserves to endure.”

Higdon was sentenced to 10 years of prison, with the first two years to serve and the remainder on probation. Higdon is also not allowed to own, possess or have contact with any animals during probation.

Copyright 2024 WANF. All rights reserved.

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Animal Abuse Persuasive Speech

How it works

Animal abuse is a serious problem that needs our immediate attention. It’s hard to imagine the amount of pain animals go through when they’re treated badly, ignored, or used unfairly. Pets, farm animals, and even wild creatures suffer because of human actions. This essay wants to make you see how bad animal abuse is, understand its different forms, and take steps to stop it. By doing this, we not only help animals but also make society kinder and more ethical.

One common form of animal abuse is neglect. Neglect happens when people don’t give their pets basic things like food, water, shelter, and medical care. This kind of abuse is tricky because it can go unnoticed until the animal is in really bad shape. Animals that aren’t cared for properly can suffer from hunger, thirst, sickness, and harsh weather. This not only hurts them physically but also mentally since animals can feel fear, anxiety, and sadness. Owning a pet is a big responsibility, and people need to know how important it is to take care of them. Campaigns and education can help teach everyone about proper animal care and the serious effects of neglect.

Another common form of animal abuse is physical violence. This includes hitting, kicking, burning, and any other way of hurting an animal. These acts are not only wrong but also illegal in many places. Animals that are physically abused often suffer from bad injuries, long-term pain, and mental scars. Society needs to understand that animals aren’t things to be hurt; they are living beings that can feel pain. Laws should be stronger to make sure people who hurt animals face serious consequences. Community programs that teach empathy and respect for animals can also help stop this kind of violence by promoting kindness.

Exploitation is another big issue when it comes to animal abuse. This means using animals for entertainment, work, and research in ways that hurt them. Animals in circuses, zoos, and marine parks often go through tough training, confinement, and unnatural living conditions. Animals in research labs are exposed to painful tests and bad living conditions. Even farm animals suffer in factory farms. To fight this abuse, we need to push for humane treatment and ethical standards wherever animals are used. This means supporting laws that protect animal rights, promoting alternatives to animal testing, and choosing products that don’t involve cruelty.

In conclusion, animal abuse comes in many forms like neglect, physical violence, and exploitation. Each form causes serious physical and mental harm to animals, showing why we need to change as a society. It’s our job to make sure animals are treated with respect and care. By spreading awareness, making laws tougher, and fostering empathy, we can take big steps in stopping animal abuse. Let’s aim to create a world where animals are valued and protected, and cruelty isn’t accepted. Together, we can make society more humane and compassionate for all living beings.

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Animals milked dry before illegal slaughter, investigation shows

• Animal Equality’s investigation uncovers widespread cruelty in India’s dairy-linked slaughterhouses.
• Abuse was documented at six facilities in Maharashtra and Kerala from October to December 2023.
• Violations of India’s animal cruelty laws and court orders were observed.
• The investigation exposes links between India’s dairy and meat industries.
• Workers were seen slitting cows’ and buffaloes’ throats, beating them with hammers, and dragging them through pools of blood.
• Cruelty has been found during similar investigations in the U.S., U.K., and Italy.

Animal Equality is revealing widespread cruelty and legal violations in slaughterhouses connected to India’s dairy industry. Between October and December 2023, investigators documented abuse at six facilities in Maharashtra and Kerala.

Here’s what they found:

• Workers repeatedly slit cows’ and buffaloes’ throats, failing to kill them with a single cut.
• Animals were slaughtered in full view of each other, breaking laws that require separate spaces for stunning.
• Workers sometimes covered animals’ eyes to shield them from seeing the deaths, but the animals could still hear the cries of those being killed nearby.
• In Kerala, investigators discovered “hammer slaughter,” where workers attempted to stun animals by bludgeoning them repeatedly with hammers. One cow was seen crying out, gasping for breath before collapsing.

In many instances, animals were milked one last time before being killed. In Deonar, several buffaloes attempted to escape but slipped in pools of blood. Workers were seen twisting a buffalo’s tail and dragging her as she struggled to break free. Despite her efforts, her throat was eventually slit. 

Some buffaloes were weak, exhausted, and sick, but none were spared. Workers loaded these animals onto carts and moved them to the kill floors.

These practices clearly violate India’s 1960 Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, as well as High Court and Supreme Court orders that establish slaughterhouse rules. “Every slaughterhouse we visited disregarded these laws,” said Amruta Ubale, Executive Director of Animal Equality in India.

The dairy industry’s global reach

India is the largest dairy producer in the world, supplying nearly a quarter of the global market. Much of this dairy is exported to the U.S. 

This investigation highlights the close connection between dairy and meat industries. Once the cows and buffaloes stop producing milk, they’re often sold for slaughter.

Dairy isn’t just about milk, it’s about the killing of animals for their flesh too. These industries harm animals, workers, the environment, and consumers alike. – Amruta Ubale, Executive Director of Animal Equality in India

Ubale warned of public health risks from injecting dairy cows and buffaloes with hormones like oxytocin. These injections are used to stop the animals from withholding milk, a natural response when their calves are taken away. The hormone relaxes their muscles, making milking easier, but it causes labor-like pain and shortens the animals’ lifespan.

Animal cruelty: a worldwide crisis

The cruelty seen in India is far from an isolated issue. Similar abuses have been documented around the world.

In 2019, Animal Equality exposed harsh conditions at Summit Calf Ranch, a supplier linked to Babybel. Newborn calves were left to freeze in subzero temperatures, their bodies tossed into piles. Some calves’ frozen hooves had separated from their legs. Workers were filmed hitting and shoving the calves, while sick animals were left to die untreated.

In the UK—at Madox Farm in South Wales—cows were kicked, punched, and hit with metal shovels. The footage was later aired on BBC’s Panorama as millions tuned in to watch.

In Northern Italy, an investigation into the buffalo mozzarella industry uncovered animals standing in mud and feces, covered in flies and surrounded by dead animals. Male calves—deemed useless because they don’t produce milk—were left to die from hunger and thirst. Investigators even found a buffalo corpse poorly hidden under straw and manure.

Dairy in India: a legacy of suffering

Animal Equality has been exposing cruelty in India’s dairy industry for years. In one case, workers attempted to force a weak buffalo onto a truck by shoving a stick into her genitals and twisting her tail. When she couldn’t move, they poured water over her nostrils, simulating drowning. In other instances, workers were seen rubbing chilies into animals’ eyes to urge them forward. 

In 2023, Animal Equality partnered with Indian-American actress Richa Moorjani to raise awareness about these abuses. Footage showed newborn male calves separated from their mothers and left to starve because they couldn’t produce milk. 

After losing their calves, female cows and buffaloes stopped producing milk. Workers responded by stuffing dead calves with hay and placing them next to the mothers, hoping to trick them into thinking their calves were still alive. This manipulation was an attempt to stimulate milk production. 

In other cases, workers tied nets around calves’ mouths to prevent them from drinking their mothers’ milk.

The plant-based solution

These investigations make one thing clear: the dairy industry—both in India and around the world—profits from animal cruelty. As more people learn the truth, they are beginning to rethink their consumption of dairy.

Plant-based alternatives offer a compassionate solution. With options like oat milk and almond-based cheeses, the plant-based industry is growing rapidly, offering cruelty-free choices that are better for animals, the environment, and human health.

DEFEND MOTHERHOOD

  A cow’s maternal instincts foster a gentle bond with her vulnerable calf.

Preserve this tender relationship by choosing plant‑based alternatives to dairy products.

More dead animals discovered, connected to abuse and neglect case in Jackson County

JACKSON COUNTY, Mich. (WILX) - Jackson County Animal Control Officers said they have found more dead animals connected to the abuse and neglect case from a week prior.

When officers searched the home, they found nine dogs and cat survivors who had been taken to the shelter. They also uncovered the remains of sixteen animals, bringing the total to more than 19.

On Wednesday night, News 10 also learned there were five kinds of animals: dogs, cats, turtles, ferrets, and chickens.

There are now two suspects in the abuse case. The animal control investigation is complete and has been forwarded to the prosecutor’s office.

Subscribe to our News 10 newsletter and YouTube page to receive the latest local news and weather. Looking to hire people, or grow your business through advertising? Gray Digital Media is your one-stop marketing solution. Learn more.

Copyright 2024 WILX. All rights reserved.

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Recognizing and responding to cases of suspected animal cruelty, abuse, and neglect: what the veterinarian needs to know

National Link Coalition – The National Resource Center on The Link Between Animal Abuse and Human Violence, Stratford, NJ, USA, ten.pins@stepwokra

The identification of a “battered pets” syndrome, which put the veterinary profession on a parallel footing with its counterparts in human medicine who respond to battered children, women, and elders, expanded the veterinarian’s role as an advocate for animals’ welfare to include the recognition of, response to, and prevention of animal abuse. Professional policies and legislation in several nations have been amended to define these responsibilities and delineate appropriate responses when animal maltreatment or other forms of family violence are suspected. This article reviews these changes, discusses abuse as a matter of animal welfare and public health, and summarizes research describing animal abuse as a possible indicator and predictor of interpersonal violence. Five steps that helped build human health care’s response to child abuse, domestic violence, and elder abuse, and that are analogous to forces in contemporary veterinary practice, are described. It familiarizes practitioners with terminology used in animal cruelty investigations. It describes clinical presentations, client profiles and behaviors, and environmental conditions that may raise a practitioner’s index of suspicion of possible animal maltreatment. It reviews protocols that practitioners may employ to respond compassionately and effectively to suspected animal abuse and enhance successful law enforcement investigations and prosecutions. Such responses can unite human and veterinary medicine in a common concern for vulnerable, victimized, and at-risk populations and position veterinarians as an essential part of public health approaches to break the cycles of violence affecting animals and human members of the family and community.

Introduction: the role of the veterinary professional in the prevention of abuse

An expansion of the veterinarian’s role as an advocate for animals’ welfare has emerged in recent years moving beyond the treatment of injury and disease to include the recognition of, response to, and prevention of animal abuse. Munro’s identification in 1996 of a “battered pets” syndrome 1 put the veterinary medical profession on a parallel footing with its counterparts in human medicine. These counterparts recognize child abuse and neglect, 2 domestic violence, 3 – 6 and elder abuse 7 , 8 as definable and preventable clinical conditions in which physicians have a duty and responsibility to evaluate the problem fully and strive to ensure that such trauma will not be repeated. 9

Veterinarians’ responsibilities to protect animal welfare and alleviate animal suffering are embedded in policies and legislation extant in several nations. The New Zealand’s Code of Professional Conduct lists animal welfare as the first of seven fundamental principles calling it “a special responsibility” and “an over-riding professional duty”. Veterinarians must act immediately to remedy situations in which they have cause to suspect unreasonable or unnecessary pain or distress or possible breaches of animal welfare legislation. If the animal’s caregiver is a client, the veterinarian should discuss the situation and develop an action plan to relieve the concerns. The matter must be reported to an animal welfare inspector:

• if issues cannot be discussed with the caregiver;
• if the action plan’s improvements are not achieved; or
• if the case involves severe cruelty or neglect.

Valid and justifiable reasons allow disclosure of personal information. An explanatory note within the Code acknowledges research linking animal abuse with human violence and encourages veterinarians to consider whether people within the home might also be at risk. If this is the case, practitioners should use their best judgment to determine whether police or Child, Youth and Family authorities should be informed. 10

Great Britain’s Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons’ Guide to Professional Conduct encourages veterinarians to include non-accidental injury (NAI) in the differential diagnosis. If the examination of the animal leads to a suspicion of abuse, the veterinarian should first attempt to discuss these concerns with the client. When this would be inappropriate or the client’s reaction increases rather than allays concerns, the veterinarian should contact the relevant authorities. Serious circumstances justify breaching obligations of client confidentiality. The Guide similarly extends veterinary response to report suspected child abuse and domestic violence. 11

The Canadian Veterinary Medical Association declares that veterinarians have a “moral obligation” to report suspected cases of animal maltreatment. In return, “society has an obligation to support those veterinarians who report in good faith using their professional judgment”. Canadian Veterinary Medical Association encourages veterinary schools to train students in recognizing and reporting animal abuse. It urges veterinary associations to lobby their provincial governments to make the reporting of animal abuse mandatory with immunity from civil and criminal liability when reports are made using professional judgment and in good faith. Canadian Veterinary Medical Association likewise recognizes animal abuse as an important social issue affecting families and communities due to the link between animal abuse and human violence. Veterinarians may help break the cycle of family violence and create safe, humane communities by reporting suspected animal abuse. 12 As of this writing, veterinarians in five of Canada’s 13 provinces and territories are required to report suspected cruelty. They join other professionals who are granted civil and criminal immunity for reporting animals in distress or for assisting in the enforcement of animal protection laws.

The American Veterinary Medical Association in 2010 amended the Veterinarian’s Oath to include the protection of animal welfare and the prevention of animal suffering. 13 The American Veterinary Medical Association Policy on Animal Abuse and Neglect issued in 2012 recognized that veterinarians may observe cases of animal abuse or neglect as defined by laws. The Policy declares that it is their responsibility to report cases promptly to appropriate authorities to protect the health and welfare of animals and people, regardless of whether reporting is mandated by law. 14 As of this writing, 20 of America’s 50 states have enacted legislation mandating or permitting veterinarians to report suspected animal maltreatment with immunity from civil and criminal liability. Two states require veterinarians to report suspected child abuse. One state mandates reporting suspected abuse of elders and vulnerable adults. 15

Animal abuse as a health concern

Animal abuse is part of the spectrum of family and community violence which should be viewed as a leading worldwide public health problem. 16 Two US Surgeons-General have called violence a matter best resolved through public health interventions rather than through sociological or law enforcement approaches. 17 , 18 Family physicians in Australia have been advised that animal cruelty impacts human health in disparate ways, is an important sentinel for domestic violence and child abuse, and raises important questions about the type of society we wish to live in. 19

Pets that are well cared for have long been seen as protective factors for human physiologic and behavioral health. Animal-assisted therapy programs incorporate this concept through occupational, physical, and speech therapy interventions with at-risk populations, therapeutic horseback riding, service animals to assist the disabled, and obesity control. 20 While acts of animal cruelty have traditionally been considered important to the animals’ well-being but of only marginal significance to human interests, research describes animal abuse as potentially indicative and predictive of interpersonal violence and as adverse experiences impacting human health as well as animal welfare. Abuse of companion and farm animals is often a component of intimidating behaviors utilized by perpetrators of intimate partner violence and child sexual abuse. Such abuse serves to dominate, control, and induce fear and subservience in their victims and to deter battered women and their children from leaving abusive situations. 20 – 27

In a study of Women’s Refuge clients and staff in New Zealand, Roguski 27 described pets as “pawns” and animal cruelty as complex and multifaceted in households marked by domestic violence. Animal abuse:

• creates a culture of normalized violence and psychological and emotional abuse;
• is conducted purposefully by batterers who believe that police will not see animal cruelty as warranting taking action;
• occasionally includes forced use of pets as sexual objects;
• occurs as a result of the perpetrator’s jealousy of his partner’s or a child’s affections directed elsewhere; and
• is also directed against animals belonging to friends and family members who abet her escape.

Orchestrated harm to animals creates a level of intimidation that secures families’ obedience. It is a barrier that delays women’s leaving abusive situations for a median amount of time of 2 years. Emotional abuse involving animals is one of the first indications of escalated and broadened physical violence toward family members. In all, 32.7% of survey participants with children reported that one or more of their children had witnessed threats to injure or kill an animal. An additional 24.5% had witnessed actual killing or injury. 27

Comparable findings have been reported in the US, 28 Canada, 29 , 30 Australia, 31 , 32 the Bahamas, 33 and Ireland. 34 , 35 Partners of women living in domestic violence shelters were reported to be 11 times more likely to hurt or kill pets than were a comparison group of partners of non-abused women. 36 Batterers who also abuse animals were described as more dangerous and used more forms of violence than batterers who do not harm animals. 37 A history of pet abuse was reported to be one of the four most significant risk factors of becoming a batterer. 38 In all, 41% of intimate partner violence offenders were reported to have committed an act of animal abuse compared to a community incidence rate of animal cruelty of 1.5%. 39

Other research links histories of animal abuse with dog bite fatalities. Patronek et al reported that 21.1% of 256 canine attacks resulting in human deaths involved dogs that had been abused. 40 DeViney et al reported that families under investigation for child abuse experienced 11 times more dog bites than did non-abusing households. 41

Neglect of animals may be a marker for elderly persons’ co-occurring self-neglect and a variety of mental health disorders. 42 – 44 Animal hoarders, who are statistically overrepresented by older women, may live in unhealthy and squalid environments surrounded by dozens or hundreds of living and dead animals in a self-fulfilling cycle of social isolation. Three distinct types of animal hoarders have been identified. 45 – 48

Veterinarians as sentinels: building a professional response to suspected abuse

Five steps were necessary to institutionalize human health care’s response to child abuse, domestic violence, and elder abuse. These steps, which removed personal, professional, peer, and organizational normative barriers, are analogous to forces currently active in veterinary medicine. These five steps may be summarized as follows. 9

Build awareness that these are matters of significant professional interest

More than 1,000 journal and mainstream publications address animal cruelty, abuse, and neglect as linked to human health and safety and as worthy of a multidisciplinary professional response. 49 Over 100 of these are specific to veterinary recognition and reporting issues. 50 – 61 Varying findings were reported in several surveys of veterinarians’ knowledge of animal abuse and other family violence and their attitudes toward reporting suspected abuse. 62 – 66 In one survey of New Zealand practitioners, a majority of respondents reported having seen cases of animal abuse within the previous 5 years and felt a strong ethical duty to deal with cases of animal abuse. Respondents were less comfortable about issues of human abuse even though awareness of the link between abuse of animals and abuse of humans was relatively high. 67

This awareness is being augmented by training programs in colleges of veterinary medicine and continuing veterinary medical education.

Assist professionals to resolve contentious ethical dilemmas

Practitioners and their staffs often experience confounding dilemmas with cases of suspected animal cruelty, abuse, or neglect 9 and an emotional block against wanting to recognize the potential of abuse. 68 They need to balance economic, safety, confidentiality, legal, and management concerns with ethical principles, personal beliefs, and professional standards while attempting to respond compassionately and effectively to individual animals and society. Additional pressure is exerted when egregious or spectacular cases generate extensive news media coverage. With increasing public, legislative, and prosecutorial interest in animal welfare, failure to respond appropriately places the profession at risk of adverse criticism and litigation. 69 A cruelty case can bring into question what Rollin 70 called a fundamental dilemma of veterinary medicine: whether the primary responsibility is to the patient or client.

Robertson 71 distinguished between ethical duties (ie, what a veterinarian should do as judged by the profession’s authorities) and legal duties (ie, what a veterinarian must do as specified by the profession and the law). While veterinarians remain divided on whether reporting suspected abuse should be mandated and numerous reasons for this division have been identified, 9 it may be argued that a mandate required by law eliminates the contentious moral dilemma 72 by making the decision automatic and explainable to the client. Once a decision has been made, the issue becomes how to appropriately implement a reporting process to comply with the duty.

Provide guarantees of legal protection

As noted above, many political and organizational bodies have approved mandatory or permissive reporting processes which reduce exposure to civil and/or criminal liability. This protection may be limited (in effect only if the report was made in good faith). Conversely, it may be absolute (applicable even if the report was made negligently or fraudulently). 73

The confidentiality of patient records and whether they may be released to the client and/or outside agencies with or without a court order varies widely. The practitioner is advised to check with legal counsel for the most current information. 73 New Zealand’s Privacy Act 1993 allows veterinarians to provide personal and private information about a client and his or her animals to an inspector if they believe the information is necessary to prevent, detect, investigate, and prosecute offenses under the Animal Welfare Act. 74

Penalties for failure to report are common in laws governing physicians’ reporting of suspected child abuse. Although similar provisions might be inferred in veterinary animal abuse reporting laws, 71 they have not been widely included to date. Practitioners in New Zealand who do nothing, allow unnecessary or unreasonable pain or distress to continue, or who take actions that exacerbate animal welfare issues may be investigated as a party to an offense, depending on the circumstances. 74

As recognized authorities on animal health, veterinarians may be called to testify in court proceedings as a witness of fact or as an expert witness, and to issue a professional opinion as to whether an animal has been injured or is in pain. 60 Training in this area is available through the International Veterinary Forensic Sciences Association ( http://www.ivfsa.org ). The distance education MS degree and graduate certificate in veterinary forensics at the University of Florida’s Maples Center for Forensic Medicine ( http://forensics.med.ufl.edu/distance-education/ ) provides additional training. Such training helps practitioners to identify clinical conditions that indicate NAI and to conduct evidence-gathering and record-keeping procedures that will withstand legal scrutiny should cases result in prosecution.

Provide training in identification of clinical indicators of abuse as a differential diagnosis

The definitions of animal cruelty, abuse, and neglect vary widely across geographic, cultural, and professional boundaries and can shift from time to time and situation to situation. In a culture that institutionalizes such accepted practices as hunting and intensive livestock production while simultaneously revering its companion animals, achieving a universal definition of such a subjective and abstract concept as animal maltreatment is highly problematic. 75

Each jurisdiction’s statutes vary in the specificity of proscribed behaviors. Most statutory language is necessarily vague: for example, a law may require that an animal have an “adequate” shelter. This allows the investigator to make a common-sense value judgment based upon ambient environmental conditions and an animal’s metabolic needs. However, a skilled defense attorney could argue that without specific criteria regarding temperature, shade, exposure to the elements, and so on, one cannot know whether cruelty actually occurred. Cruelty is frequently defined with such ambiguous language that courts may not perceive an incident to violate statutes unless it is extreme and outrageous. 76

Animal cruelty, abuse, and neglect generally imply socially unacceptable actions or omissions that inflict unnecessary pain or distress. What constitutes “unnecessary” varies between countries and from time to time in each country and the prevailing standard can be determined only by the courts. 77

The following terms in law enforcement investigations most commonly describe socially unacceptable conduct toward animals. 75 These terms may or may not match statutory language in any given jurisdiction.

• Animal cruelty: the most prevalent term, implying a deliberate infliction of pain from which the offender derives enjoyment or amusement.
• Animal abuse: a more neutral term, modeled after the child protection field, describing willful or negligent maltreatment regardless of the perpetrator’s intent, motivation, or mental state.
• Animal neglect: an act of omission signifying a lack of care, the most common form of maltreatment.
• Animal hoarding: neglect on a significant scale involving large numbers of animals often kept in deteriorating conditions below minimal standards of nutrition, sanitation, and veterinary care.
• Animal physical abuse: a wide range of injurious acts requiring active engagement such as beating, kicking, suffocating, throwing, shaking, poisoning, and burning. The clinical presentation includes injuries to the skeleton, soft tissue, or organs sustained as a result of beating or repeated maltreatment.
• NAI: a term borrowed from the child protection field as a synonym for physical abuse. 78 – 81
• Animal sexual abuse: abusive acts or sexual conduct with an animal involving the rectum, anus, or genitalia. The term is preferred over the more archaic bestiality (in which sexual intercourse must occur) and zoophilia (a strong erotic preference for animals).
• Emotional abuse: a concept prevalent in the lexicon of interpersonal violence generally absent from animal cruelty laws.

Detailed descriptions of clinical conditions that should raise an index of suspicion of the above conditions are too exhaustive for this limited review. They have been discussed more extensively in several key guidances. 68 , 73 , 74 , 78 – 83 They may be summarized as follows.

Presenting clinical factors

• Unexplained or repetitive injuries to an animal, which may show up on examination, ultrasound or X-ray
• History of unexplained or repetitive injuries to multiple animals
• Evidence of rib injuries, either current or from previous trauma
• Low weight or low body condition scores
• Unexplained poisoning, burns, bruising, and stab wounds
• ◦ Presence of multiple fractures
• ◦ Fractures occurring on more than one region of the body
• ◦ Transverse fractures
• ◦ Fractures presenting at a later stage of healing
• ◦ Multiple fractures at different stages of healing
• Gunshot wounds
• Ingrown collar
• Scars, wounds, and traumas consistent with animals used in dog- or cock-fighting competitions
• Obvious severe neglect: this may include heavy ectoparasite infestation, dental disease, severely matted fur, failure to treat adverse medical conditions, dehydration, emaciation, or overgrown claws, horns, or hooves
• Signs of disease, pain, distress, or injuries needing treatment, such as blood from orifices, vocalization, vomiting, lameness, shivering, or diarrhea
• Sexual abuse
• The animal displays fear of its owner or of people in general
• The animal displays an unexplained change in behavior.

Client profile factors

• The client is new to the practice or visits several clinics to avoid raising suspicion
• Discrepancies in names, addresses, and ownership of animals
• Prior history with the client has raised concerns
• History of high turnover of animals, especially with repetitive histories of behavioral problems
• Family is known to be under economic, marital, substance abuse, family violence, or other pressures
• The client’s knowledge, skills, and attitude compromise the ability for proper animal husbandry.

Client behavior factors

• History as presented by the client is inconsistent with the nature of the injuries
• Family members present changing or discrepant histories
• The Client lacks concern and is indifferent to the animal’s injuries
• The client repeatedly fails to follow-up on the treatment of serious medical conditions
• Weak emotional attachment to the animal
• Unexplained delay in seeking medical attention
• The client is argumentative or aggressive; other family members may appear intimidated, apprehensive, or deferential
• The client expresses not feeling safe at home
• The client blames someone else or unknown causes for the trauma
• The client’s methods of disciplining or housebreaking animals raise concerns
• Children’s responses to questions about their pets raise concerns
• Munchausen syndrome by proxy involving the animal. 81

Environmental factors

• Hoarding excessive number of animals under substandard care
• Animals’ living environment is unsuitable
• Availability, nutritional composition, and quality of feed are insufficient for animals’ metabolic needs
• High incidence of viral, bacterial, and fungal infections, heavy intestinal or heartworm burdens, or dermatitis or other skin conditions indicative of flea infestations or sarcoptic and demodectic mange
• The animal has been abandoned by owners who have departed.

As shown in Table 1 , the Colorado Veterinary Medical Association 85 summarized suspicious patterns of NAI. More detailed descriptions of these and similar traumas may be found in several textbooks that review veterinary pathology, crime scene investigation, evidence collection, and recording techniques employed in forensic animal cruelty investigations. 86 – 90

Patterns of non-accidental injury

Note: Data from Colorado Veterinary Medical Association. 97

The practitioner is reminded that it is not necessarily a single incident that leads to a raised index of suspicion, but rather a variable combination of factors, pattern of actions, and behaviors, or injuries which are not clearly or adequately explained. The person presenting the animal may not be the perpetrator or may be under some coercion from the person who caused the injury.

Develop standardized protocols for responses that balance the interests of the practice, clients, patients, and other animals in the household

The complexities of animal cruelty cases and their inherent ethical dilemmas are challenging, particularly for junior members of the clinical team, nurses, receptionists, and technicians if the senior members do not believe abuse has occurred. A practice-specific decision-making protocol should be established in advance. This must protect the interests of the patient, other animals, the veterinary staff and practice, the client, and other family members whenever a staff member is concerned for an animal’s welfare.

Administering a client questionnaire 73 that describes family members’ relationships with and attitudes toward their animals may uncover patterns of abusive behaviors and inability to provide proper animal husbandry. This questionnaire could be administered when welcoming a new client to the practice or whenever an abusive etiology is suspected.

A victim may be presented by a perpetrator, another family member (who may be a victim himself/herself), or a third party. The situation is best handled by an experienced clinician with a firm policy in place. It is important to remain calm, polite, and objective, indicating that the inquiries are in the animal’s best interests. If the suspicions are allayed, brief notes should be kept in the clinical file. If the inquiry suggests that a second opinion, further examination, or possible reporting to authorities is indicated, comprehensive, contemporaneous, and accurate note-taking or tape recording is essential especially if the case will lead to a formal investigation. Explanations from the owner or presenter should be recorded as fully as possible. If no explanation is offered, this should be noted as well. 68

The assessment of the animals and their environment is essential for potential prosecution. This will enhance the veterinarian’s credibility with the client, animal welfare investigators, police, and the courts. 74 Notes should be signed and dated. If possible, another veterinarian should conduct a second, documented examination, which may support or contradict the findings. If a report is made to law enforcement, it is not realistic to expect to remain anonymous. Nor will the veterinarian be expected to make a determination of cruelty: the investigating authority will make this determination. 85

When writing notes for the client’s file, consider how you would describe the scene and the animal’s condition to best portray the scale of the incident and severity of the animals’ pain and distress to a third party several months hence. The notes should include the following. 74 , 85

Base information

• Who engaged you
• Date, location, time, and duration of visit(s)
• Other parties present
• Number, class, species, breed, and sex of the animal(s)
• Chief complaint by the client
• Statements made by the client or others, which may include incriminating conduct: try to write down exactly what is said
• Document the timeliness of seeking veterinary care and how the animal was presented (walking on own, limping, carried in)
• Identifiable risk factors, including the client’s financial issues, client’s decision-making authority, physical environment, nutrition type and availability, and animal husbandry concerns.

The assessment undertaken

• Nature and number of physical examination(s), radio-graphs, and laboratory tests noting any abnormalities or unusual findings
• Description of injuries: a wound diagram using a silhouette drawing may be helpful
• Body condition: be specific as to which score scale you use and be very descriptive
• Coat condition, including suspected parasites or foreign material
• Dental condition
• Observations of normal/abnormal behavior
• Discussion of levels of pain and distress
• Photographs or videos taken, including “before and after”, full-body shots, and close-ups; remember that fur or feathers may conceal injuries.

Diagnosis, advice, and treatment

• All steps that lead up to the diagnosis.
• Processes or considerations adopted to rule out all other possible contributing factors
• Details of all advice given to the client
• Treatment(s) administered
• Outcome achieved for the animal(s)
• Details of subsequent follow-up examinations and treatments
• Specific literature or other materials used to support your opinions.

If euthanasia is indicated, document the reasons for this decision (eg, “in extreme pain and suffering” or “injured past recovery”). Take care to maintain all records and notes as a “chain of evidence” for potential prosecution. Keep a chronological record of the movement or transfer of any sample (ante- or post-mortem) or physical evidence from the diagnostic processes (eg, X-rays, ultrasound, photographs, laboratory results), including any courier services utilized, from the time it was taken until the production of the evidence in a courtroom. Such materials must be securely and appropriately packaged and stored, including storing the body in a freezer or refrigerator for necropsy by a forensic pathologist so as to not contaminate or deteriorate the evidence.

Several factors determine whether the most appropriate course of action is to educate the client, monitor the situation further, or report to an animal welfare inspector or law enforcement agency. These include the following. 68 , 73 , 74 , 83

• Statutory mandates or permissions to report with protection from exposure to civil or criminal liability
• Number of problems, severity, frequency, and duration of injuries
• The client’s intentionality, motivations, and attitude regarding the injuries, and willingness and ability to correct adverse situations
• Whether the situation is normal and acceptable under applicable laws and contemporary standards
• Medical histories of the patient and the client’s other animals
• Appearance and attitude of other family members and witnesses
• Availability of procedures for follow-up on questionable cases
• Indications of co-occurring domestic violence or child abuse.

The flowchart in Figure 1 , 10 developed in New Zealand, may serve as a model adaptable in other nations to guide practitioners to an appropriate response.

A flow diagram of actions following observation of an animal welfare case.

Notes: * Animal cruelty law enforcement authority varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Adapted with permission from the Veterinary Council of New Zealand. 98

Abbreviation: SPCA, Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.

When in doubt, seek clarification from your veterinary association or legal counsel. Whichever decision is made, staff members should be fully briefed on the situation and understand the implications for the clients’ future visits. Remember that it is not up to the veterinarian to establish any offense, but to report the situation to those who have the legal power to investigate. They will make a determination whether filing of criminal charges is warranted.

Animal maltreatment is one of the most challenging diagnoses in clinical work requiring time, experience, emotional energy, sensitivity, tact, and not a small measure of courage. Practitioners may be reluctant to admit that a client would present abused animals for treatment. Nevertheless, most practitioners will be presented at some time in their careers with cruelty cases. 63 , 78 – 81 , 91 – 95 While such cases may not be seen regularly, they are invariably problematic and difficult to resolve. 52

Veterinarians’ reluctance to report suspected maltreatment is outweighed by the profession’s sense of responsibility to animal welfare, satisfaction of helping abused animals, and opportunity to stop escalation into interpersonal violence. A proactive response has the potential to save human lives and reduce animal suffering.

Animal cruelty cases are being treated with more respect than at any time in the past. With 99% of Americans perceiving animals as close companions or family members, 96 animal abuse should be described as a form of family violence. We are witnessing increased public concern for animals, a proliferation of university courses in human–animal studies and animal law, a growing number of animal-assisted therapy programs, and extensive empirical evidence for animal abuse as a precursor to human violence. These are generating a renaissance of interest in animal well-being as an indicator of human health.

This increased attention is helping veterinarians to address animal welfare more fully and to fulfill the oath to use their skills for the betterment of society. Veterinarians are ideally placed as sentinels to identify and treat abuse and to report it to appropriate authorities as necessary. Practitioners can be an essential part of public health approaches to break the cycles of violence affecting animals and human members of the family and community.

Animal cruelty is a crime. Specialized veterinary pathology and veterinary forensics laboratories are being established in more developed areas. Elsewhere, the services of human forensic specialists are being utilized to help document animal cruelty. This improved capability to document and present clinical findings, combined with increased awareness of the impact of animal abuse on human well-being, has led to more aggressive prosecution of animal cruelty cases. Recognizing and reporting suspected animal abuse are the first steps to resolve unhealthy situations and make communities safer for all. In so doing, veterinarians can work within a One Health approach that unites human and veterinary medicine in a common concern for the vulnerable, victimized, and at-risk.

The author reports no conflicts of interest in this work.

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Mabel man charged with animal torture, cruelty after accused of attempting to drown, bury a kitten

The 68-year-old man will appear in the fillmore county courthouse on oct. 29..

PRESTON, Minn. — A Mabel man is accused of attempting to drown then bury a kitten on his property, according to court documents filed on Thursday.

The 68-year-old is charged with two misdemeanor counts of overworking and mistreating an animal, one count relating to torture and one to cruelty.

According to the criminal complaint, Fillmore County deputies were dispatched to Cherrywood Estates in Mabel on Sept. 12 for a report of animal cruelty.

A deputy spoke with the two witnesses who reported the man. One witness said she heard him turn on the water outside the apartment complex and watched him fill a small bucket with water. The witness told the deputy he then walked inside the shed where the newborn kittens were bedding with a cat.

The kittens were originally strays, but the witness said they were caring for them. The apartment manager consented to the cats staying in the utility shed until they were old enough to give away.

The second witness said she went to the shed and found the man inside with a bucket of water and a tool, similar to a pitchfork, inside the bucket, the complaint said. When the second witness looked at the box with the cat and its kittens, she told the deputy she noticed a gray kitten was missing. She confronted the man, asking where the kitten was. He denied putting it in the water bucket and proceeded to go behind the shed with the bucket.

The two witnesses later heard a kitten crying and discovered it partially buried behind the shed.

The man is scheduled to appear in court on Oct. 29 in the Fillmore County Courthouse.