essay on waste to wealth

From Waste to Wealth: Transforming Trash into Sustainable Success

Green Thestral

In a world grappling with environmental concerns and limited resources, the concept of “waste to wealth” holds tremendous promise. Waste, once perceived as a burden, is now recognized as a potential asset that can be transformed into a valuable resource. From recycling and upcycling to innovative technologies, this article explores the various ways in which we can turn waste into wealth, promoting sustainable practices and economic growth.

The Power of Recycling

Recycling has become a household term, but its significance cannot be overstated. By collecting and processing waste materials such as plastic, paper, glass, and metal, we can divert them from landfills and give them a new life. The recycling industry not only reduces the strain on our planet’s resources but also creates employment opportunities and contributes to the circular economy. Governments and businesses worldwide are investing in recycling infrastructure and raising awareness to maximize the potential of waste recycling.

Upcycling: Adding Value to Discarded Materials

While recycling focuses on breaking down waste materials, upcycling takes a different approach by transforming them into products of higher value. Instead of downgrading the material, upcycling adds creativity and innovation to turn waste into desirable and unique items. From repurposing old furniture to creating fashion accessories from discarded textiles, upcycling has gained popularity as a sustainable alternative to conventional manufacturing. This practice not only reduces waste but also fosters creativity and entrepreneurial opportunities.

Innovative Technologies for Waste Management

Advancements in technology have revolutionized waste management, offering exciting possibilities for a greener and more sustainable future. One groundbreaking technology that has gained significant attention is waste-to-energy conversion. This process involves transforming organic waste into valuable biogas or biofuels through various techniques such as anaerobic digestion and pyrolysis.

Anaerobic digestion is a biological process that breaks down organic waste in the absence of oxygen, producing biogas as a byproduct. The organic waste, such as food scraps, agricultural residues, and sewage sludge, is placed in an enclosed tank where anaerobic bacteria decompose the waste and generate methane-rich biogas. This biogas can then be used as a renewable energy source for electricity generation, heating, or even as a vehicle fuel. The remaining digestate, which is a nutrient-rich residue, can be utilized as a natural fertilizer for agriculture, closing the loop on waste management.

Pyrolysis is another waste-to-energy conversion process that involves heating organic waste in the absence of oxygen, resulting in the production of biochar, bio-oil, and syngas. Biochar is a stable carbon-rich material that can enhance soil fertility and carbon sequestration, while bio-oil and syngas can be utilized as energy sources. This process can be applied to various types of organic waste, including agricultural residues, forestry waste, and even certain types of plastics.

The waste-to-energy conversion technologies not only offer a sustainable solution for waste management but also contribute to the production of renewable energy. By diverting organic waste from landfills, these processes help reduce greenhouse gas emissions, as landfilling organic waste leads to the release of methane, a potent greenhouse gas. Furthermore, the utilization of biogas and biofuels as energy sources helps decrease reliance on fossil fuels, mitigating the negative impacts of climate change and supporting the transition to a low-carbon economy.

While waste-to-energy conversion primarily focuses on organic waste, technology is also advancing to address the challenges posed by non-recyclable plastics. Traditional recycling methods often face limitations when it comes to certain plastics, such as multilayered packaging and mixed plastics that are difficult to separate and process. To tackle this issue, innovative technologies like plasma gasification and chemical recycling are being explored.

Plasma gasification is a high-temperature process that converts solid waste, including non-recyclable plastics, into a synthetic gas known as syngas. This syngas can be further utilized as a source of energy or as a chemical feedstock for the production of various materials. The process employs extremely high temperatures generated by an electric arc or plasma torch, breaking down the waste into its elemental components.

Chemical recycling, also known as advanced recycling or feedstock recycling, involves breaking down plastics into their molecular building blocks through various chemical processes. These building blocks can then be used as raw materials to produce new plastics, reducing the demand for virgin fossil fuel-based plastics. Chemical recycling has the potential to address the challenges posed by mixed plastics, post-consumer plastics, and plastics that are difficult to recycle through traditional mechanical processes.

By exploring and implementing these innovative waste management technologies, we can significantly reduce waste generation, minimize environmental pollution, and create valuable resources. Waste-to-energy conversion technologies provide a sustainable alternative to conventional waste disposal methods, generating renewable energy and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, plasma gasification and chemical recycling offer solutions to the challenges posed by non-recyclable plastics, fostering a more circular economy and reducing reliance on fossil fuels.

As technology continues to advance and awareness of environmental issues grows, it is crucial to support and invest in these innovative waste management solutions. Collaboration between governments, businesses, and individuals is vital to drive the adoption of these technologies, promote sustainable practices, and pave the way for a greener and more sustainable future. By harnessing the power of technology, we can transform waste into wealth, mitigate environmental impacts, and build a more resilient planet for generations to come.

The Circular Economy Approach

The circular economy is an economic system that aims to minimize waste generation and maximize resource utilization. It emphasizes the concept of “closing the loop” by designing products that are durable, repairable, and recyclable. Through practices like product life extension, sharing economy models, and responsible consumption, the circular economy reduces the extraction of raw materials and promotes the efficient use of existing resources. By adopting a circular approach, businesses can not only reduce waste and costs but also enhance their brand reputation and contribute to environmental preservation.

Waste Management as a Business Opportunity

The transition from waste to wealth has opened up new avenues for entrepreneurs and innovators. Startups are emerging in various sectors, focusing on waste management and resource recovery. From companies that convert food waste into fertilizer to those that produce eco-friendly packaging materials, these businesses demonstrate the potential for profit while addressing environmental challenges. Governments and investors are supporting these ventures, recognizing their ability to create jobs, drive economic growth, and contribute to a sustainable future.

Community Engagement and Education

Creating a sustainable future requires collective action, and community engagement plays a crucial role. Education and awareness campaigns can help change people’s attitudes and behaviors towards waste management. By promoting responsible consumption, waste segregation, and recycling practices, individuals can actively participate in the waste-to-wealth movement. Community initiatives, such as local recycling centers, composting programs, and upcycling workshops, provide platforms for collaboration and knowledge-sharing. Together, we can build a more sustainable and prosperous society.

The waste-to-wealth concept holds immense potential for addressing environmental challenges and creating economic opportunities. By embracing recycling, upcycling, and innovative technologies, we can transform waste into valuable resources, reduce landfill burden, and mitigate the depletion of natural resources. The circular economy approach and the rise of waste management startups further demonstrate the viability of turning waste into a profitable enterprise. However, achieving lasting change requires collective efforts, community engagement, and continuous education. Let us seize the opportunity to turn waste into wealth and build a sustainable future for generations to come.

Written by Green Thestral

Green Thestral Inc. UN 17 SGDs

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Waste to Wealth: Generating Income from Waste

“lessons in waste management according tocircular economy”.

The Key to Waste Management:Collaboration from Everybody in the Community

“Waste” is another important global issue that must be immediately addressed. While various groups of people around the world are raising awareness on ways to decrease the amount of waste as well as waste management, we still hear terrible news from the ocean with losses that are caused by waste. Hence, the issue of waste has not yet been solved. Without the cooperation from all sectors to manage this problem, merely changing the mindset of people may not be sufficient to tackle this enormous issue.

12 Successful Model Projects to Transform Waste to Sustainable Wealth

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Waste-To-Wealth, Towards a Sustainable Zero-Waste in a Circular Economy: An Overview

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Turning waste into wealth: World Habitat Day focus on cleaning up cities

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Waste can have a devastating effect on public health, the environment, and the climate, but cutting-edge innovation and technology can provide improved, cheaper solutions to the challenge, and help cities and communities to see waste as a business opportunity. This was the message marking World Habitat Day , on Monday, with a focus on waste management.

"We must reduce the amount of waste we produce", said UN Secretary-General António Guterres in a statement. "And, at the same time, start seeing it as a valuable resource that can be re-used and recycled, including for energy".

Linked to the International Day, UN-Habitat , the United Nations agency for human settlements, has launched a " Waste Wise Cities " campaign, to address the increasing challenges of coping with solid waste.

As part of the campaign, cities are invited to confirm their commitment to uphold a set of principles. These include assessing the quantity and type of waste, improving waste collection, ensuring cities are environmentally safe, and implementing waste-to-energy schemes.

The campaign notes that dealing with waste eats up a significant proportion of city budgets, and that waste management is not being sufficiently financed. So-called "frontier technologies", however, can provide cost-effective answers to the problem of how to clean up cities.

Examples include automation and artificial intelligence which, when used together, can help sort recyclables more efficiently. Smart packaging is another potential solution, using sensors to help reduce the amount of food thrown away, and innovative new technologies which can turn organic waste into renewable energy and compost.

The technology also provides an opportunity for newer, rapidly-growing cities in developing countries to "leapfrog" older cities, by taking advantage of the latest solutions and avoiding more established, but less efficient methods.

Using these tools effectively, said the UN chief on Monday, can help us to build well-planned and smartly managed cities, which can steer us towards inclusive growth, and low-emission development.

The potential benefits of frontier technologies for developing countries are outlined in the UN’s 2018 World Economic and Social Survey , which concludes that they can help the world to change for the better, and achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and address climate change.

The study also warns that the widespread introduction of these tools must be accompanied by appropriate, effective policies, to help countries to avoid pitfalls and minimize the economic and social costs of technology-related disruption.

UN International Days

From trash to treasure: The Nigerians recycling waste into wealth

As the world struggles to manage its waste, residents of Ibadan present alternative ways to recycle.

If you peer into the gutters of any big Nigerian city, a filthy sight awaits you: Floating cans, nylon water sachets, empty bottles and other waste materials discarded by humans, swept there by rain, gathering and clogging up the drain.

This is not only a Nigerian problem, it is a global challenge. The world continues to writhe under the burden of waste management. In 2019, the Global Material Footprint (the amount of raw material including fossil fuels, biomass and metal and non-metal ore, extracted to meet total consumption demand), according to the United Nations, was 85.9 billion tonnes – up from 73.2 billion tonnes 10 years before. Meanwhile, the world’s electronics waste – namely discarded smartphones, tablets and other electronic devices – grew by 38 percent in that same year.

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Today, March 18, the world celebrates Global Recycling Day with the theme #RecyclingHeroes to draw attention to “the people, places and activities that showcase what an important role recycling plays in contributing to an environmentally stable planet and a greener future which will benefit all”.

In Nigeria, “wastepreneurs” are providing an answer to this by taking waste straight from the dump, transforming it and redefining its purpose. These innovators work with different materials – water sachets, scrap metal, bottles, plastic, tyres and more – with many of them learning on the job, how to manipulate these objects, to make “beauty out of ashes”. These entrepreneurs ask: “If you can recycle it, why waste it?”

Ade Dagunduro: ‘Not trash, but a thing of beauty’

Surrounded by art pieces in his gallery in Dugbe at the heart of Ibadan, Ade Dagunduro, 34, takes us through his creative journey. A graduate of Fine Art from Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, his desire to push the boundaries of what he learned within the walls of a university spurred him to take up more training in painting and sculpture.

“School was more theoretical, less practical. When you get out of school and into the real world, you realise there is much more to learn,” he says.

Art has “changed his life”, he adds, and, now, he can help improve life a little for others by taking waste from the streets to make art.

Originally working with regular art materials such as paint, clay and wood, five years ago, Dagunduro decided to challenge himself by thinking beyond those.

“I wanted to see if I could actually think outside the box. I asked myself if I could be more creative,” he says. In his quest to do this, Dagunduro learned to manipulate waste materials like used tyres, which would otherwise be burned – a common cause of pollution in Nigeria.

His first work with waste in 2016 was an ox made out of a tyre, called The Challenge. These days, he also works with metal, ropes and plastic which he finds on the streets in his community. Sometimes, people bring materials to his studio.

“Our environment can now smile because we have people like us trying to ease off its burden by picking the waste off its shoulders. These days, you hardly find cartons, for instance, littering the streets. Humans are exhausting the forests. Now we need more paper, so we have to start recycling what we see on the street,” he says.

Dagunduro’s latest work, titled Torso, is a female form made from dismantled motorcycle chains – which he picked up from a motorcycle mechanic’s workshop – welded together.

“You first craft with clay, then you take the mould which has been constructed and cast it out with cement. After that, you allow it to dry and then ‘liberate’ it out of the clay. So now that it is out, the pattern is already printed on the mould, and you can begin welding the metal around it, which is done in batches. After that, you couple the metal pieces together.”

Dagunduro says this is then followed by cleaning and shining, to prevent rust and preserve the artwork.

The motorcycle chains that would have been thrown on a dump now stand as a sculpture, in the far-right corner of Ade Dag Art Gallery, waiting to be bought; “waiting to re-enter the world that discarded it, not as trash but as a thing of beauty,” he says.

Adejoke Lasisi: Making a school bag from 250 used water sachets

Adejoke Lasisi, who is in her early 30s, is from a traditional, middle-class weaving family in Ibadan. Aged nine, she started weaving the popular aso-òfì, a material made from cotton threads, traditionally woven by Yorùbá people.

Now, she has turned her craft into a way to relieve her home city of some of its waste burden. In Nigeria, discarded “pure water” sachets – small, rectangular sachets of drinking water made from nylon – are a common sight on roads and in gutters.

“I began to pick them up,” she says. “I also began to think of what I could do with them.

“People were always complaining about the pure water nylon sachets everywhere. I worked out that it would be great to make these nylon sachets into colourful clothing.”

She has now perfected the art of blending weaving wool with nylon. Doing this involves a five-step process before the sachets are transformed into attractive products such as bags, purses, slippers, mats, artwork and more.

First, Lasisi sources the nylon – picking up sachets from the streets and receiving discarded, imperfect sachets from water processing plants. She says the nylon used to make pure water sachets has two advantages: It is the right texture for weaving and is largely a neutral colour, meaning it is easy to dye.

“After sorting, we wash the material thoroughly and disinfect it, after which we dry it in the sun. The whole process takes three days. Once dried, we shred the material with scissors into thread-like strands. Then, we can begin to weave them on the loom.”

One of her most popular products is a school bag which is made from 10 percent òfì and 90 percent nylon and recycles 250 water sachets in the process.

Since Lasisi started Planet3R, her for-profit business, in 2020, she has also partnered with different organisations and won several grants in Nigeria and overseas to train young people in the art.

“I hope that other young people will be able to save the environment with their hands too. The more wastepreneurs we have, the cleaner our environment becomes.”

Tunde Odunlade: ‘Fabrics tell stories’

On a table in Tunde Odunlade’s Bodija office stands a mound of different fabrics which have been thrown away. Close by, on the wall, a piece of art made from cotton fabric is mounted – showing, right here, the “before” and “after” process of his work.

Odunlade’s journey to wastepreneur took an unlikely route. After an exhibition of batik art in the United States in 1987, Odunlade, who is now in his 70s, had been told to come and pick up his exhibits to take them away for safekeeping but, because of his engagements, he could not find the time to do so.

Then, something unexpected happened. A cat owned by his friend at the gallery managed to get into the artworks and tore his batik to pieces.

“I was pained. I actually started crying but something told me that crying would not solve anything at that point. Instead, I should figure out a way to prevent future occurrence,” he says.

The solution he found marked the beginning of a new journey in his career as an artist.

“In order to prevent my work from tearing easily, I started layering, on top of one another, between four and six layers of used cloth in areas of importance in each work. That made it thicker,” says Odunlade.

Today, he collects used cloth which he likes to call “found material” as opposed to “waste material” because the materials are either found by him or, he says, the materials “find” him.

“Most of what people refer to as àkísà [the Yoruba word for rags], I now collect from people who otherwise would have thrown them away, in order to make a work of art,” says Odunlade, who calls this style of art batik quilt tapestry. These days, people bring cloth they no longer need to his studio.

Odunlade sees fabric as a means to document moments in our lives.

“You see, fabric in itself tells story … they all have documented history from time immemorial. Whatever fabric I use, it had a story before it got to me. After I make it into an artwork, it starts to tell another story as it speaks to people. So I see myself as a historian by virtue of working with these many fabrics,” he says.

For Odunlade, it is the responsibility of citizens to improve the environment. “The truth is that what we have done to the environment, that is what the environment is doing back to us.” He says the world is in this waste dilemma because of human actions and inactions.

“Sometimes when I am driving on the street or taking a public bus, I am always on the lookout for people who litter the environment. Once they do that, I charge towards them to challenge their dirty habit. Start from something as little as that,” he advises.

Wasiu Arowolo: ‘Nature had spoken to me’ – from tin cans to works of art

The son of a motor mechanic, Wasiu Arowolo had always been drawn to art. In his community in Ibadan, art was not viewed as a serious profession, but he pursued it anyway, gaining an apprenticeship at a popular gallery and studio called Topfat while other friends went off to college.

Arowolo says he could not always afford the tools and materials he needed to do the work – his family did not approve of his choice of study and did not support him. So he frequently found himself sitting under a tree, watching his fellow pupils at work outside.

One day, while he was waiting under the tree, a friend who was passing by suggested he “listen to nature”. “Look around you, there will be something to work with in nature,” the man said.

What Arowolo really started to notice, however, was how the rubbish and waste strewn around the streets was affecting the natural world. One day, in 2012, he found himself at a rubbish dump where he began picking up tin cans.

From these cans, he created a butterfly. He found this helped to relieve the anxiety he had been feeling about his job and about the environment around him. That was the beginning of his work as a waste artist.

“I was still trying to sort out one of the butterfly wings at my boss’s studio when a woman who was a customer at the gallery asked how much I was willing to sell it for, and she paid for it immediately.” This first payment – 25,000 naira ($65) gave him the boost he needed to continue with his craft.

Later that same year, he won the Life in My City art competition in Nigeria, winning 50,000 naira ($131). The theme of the competition was Being Young and he produced a waste-oriented project, titled Junior – a large pair of slippers made with cans, with a small child’s leg in it. For him, it symbolised the idea of young people trying to fit into their parents’ shoes, at an age when they are trying to make something of their lives.

These days, he uses metal in all of his artwork – mostly finding it on the streets – and has his own studio.

“I have lots of metal in my studio. Some pieces have been sitting there for eight years. I don’t draft in a sketch pad before coming up with ideas for my work. So, each of the metal items calls me by the day to say, ‘just use me’. I do what comes to my mind the moment I pick any of them up,” he says.

Nowadays, Arowolo’s work is highly sought-after. Far from the boy who could not afford tools to learn about art, he is now comfortably off.

“Seventy-five percent of my works are sold before completion. People pay ahead for my work. Go to some of the top-notch galleries in Ibadan; my works are there. So, I can tell you that acceptance of my work has been tremendous.”

Jumoke Olowokere: Providing 40 schools with play equipment

When the manager of the five-apartment compound she lives in with her family informed the residents that their rubbish collection fee was going up because of the amount of waste they were generating, Jumoke Olowokere, 41, decided she had to take action. That was back in 2015.

“I started looking for things that should not be taken to the waste bin. Things that can be converted, things that can be reused.”

Today, she runs a small organisation that, among other things, converts waste into play equipment for schools.

In 2019, she celebrated her 40th birthday by gifting 40 schools in the city outdoor play equipment which was made with the help of the schools’ students. They used discarded tyres and ropes to make swings and climbing frames, decorating with bottle tops.

“My staff and I challenged the students to bring waste to school from their communities. With that, we built them playgrounds and we repainted the school walls outside. Many of them were painting with their hands, for the first time. In fact, some refused to wash their hands and went home with their coloured palms,” Olowookere says. The project was named PP40 (Perceptions Project 40) and it has benefitted some 20,000 students across Ibadan.

Olowokere’s business, Africa Creativity and Sustainability Hub, also has a shop that sells items such as ottoman chairs, sinks and garden ornaments made from old tyres, which she says are her favourite form of waste to work with.

When hand-washing became very important due to COVID-19, she made eight hand-washing basins stacked on tyres and installed them in different parts of the city.

“They are so solid, strong, rugged and dependable. Leave them for years, you will still find them, come sun come rain, they don’t break easily,” she says. Despite the durability of tyres, her biggest challenge while working with them has been the tools.

“As much as I love to work with them – because they are strong and rugged – it is difficult to manipulate them. There are so many ideas that I come up with but the tools have stopped me from realising them,” she laments. She hopes to find a way to make fences for residential compounds out of tyres.

The other challenge is acceptance.

“Some people don’t want to buy them because they are made from waste. People think you are crazy if you have tyres in your house. Little do they know that we need some level of madness to hand over a sustainable environment to the next generation.”

In December 2020, she made a snowman from tyres and a four-metre (13-foot) Christmas tree from 820 plastic bottles, which were placed on the road that leads to her office in Moniya, Ibadan. These are permanent fixtures that, she says, are a gentle reminder that “waste can be wealth”.

If they had not been made into these decorative pieces, the tyres would most likely have been burned in landfills, while the bottles would have ended up floating in gutters, washed around by rainwater.

Instead, today, recycled, they are adding beauty to the environment.

Ibrahim Gbadamosi: Using waste design to make a political statement

In 2019, while he was selling some of his artwork on the roadside around Ringroad, Ibadan, a lecturer at the University of Ibadan showed interest in Ibrahim Gbadamosi’s craft.

She invited him to present his work at the biannual conference of the Institute of Peace and Strategic Studies, being held at the university. But, when the lecturer who invited him stepped out of the venue, he was sent away by another lecturer, who threatened to call security.

Gbadamosi, 41, says his art, which is made from all sorts of different kinds of waste, often gets a mixed reception. Some love it; others hate it.

“You will find people who will close doors in your faces, and you will find people who will open doors to you.”

In his house, which doubles as a gallery, visitors will find a sailing ship made from a tree trunk; a map of Africa made from bottle tops and foam slippers; a beaded curtain made out of strings of bottle caps.

His gallery is a stone’s throw from his family home, where he grew up, in an upper-middle-class area of Ibadan. His love for art began at the age of six when he would visit a local art gallery with his sister.

Despite this early love for art, however, he says his family did not view it as a good career choice, so he studied Geology at the University of Ado-Ekiti in Ekiti State, graduating in 2003.

Gbadamosi was expected to graduate and find a good job in the oil and gas sector. But even after he did that, art remained a hobby. He spent his weekends busy, painting on canvasses, visiting galleries.

He says his family believed his love of art would remain just a hobby until his first solo exhibition in November 2011 at the African Foundation for the Arts in Lagos. His work ended up on national TV and he successfully sold some pieces from it. After that, he resigned from his job and followed the call of art completely.

His family thought he was mad to leave a good, well-paid job and refused to support him. The money he made from the exhibition soon ran out. “I could not afford paint, so I went into recycling fully. I started to make use of carpenter’s waste, bottle caps and plastic.”

Gbadamosi says whenever he went around picking up these items, people would make fun of him.

These days, in his gallery, the personal is interwoven with the political as he uses his art to make bold statements about the state of the world today. In his Politics of Violence series, he draws attention to gun violence in the US, for example. In another piece, titled About Time, a truck attached to the US flag dumps weapons.

“There would be less fatality if people who want to harm others didn’t have access to weapons at all,” he says.

With clothing materials his late mother gave him, he has made an iron table wrapped with damask cloth. With an old rubber suitcase, he has made a chair. He has given new life to old wood discarded during a renovation of his home in his London Series: a red, wooden London bus that doubles as a dining table set; a pair of Royal Guards that serve as lamps made from ice-buckets.

“I wanted to make functional art that was themed,” he says. “The common thread that runs through it is that the subjects are London icons.” London, he says, is a place his parents lived for a time and from where they would bring souvenirs for the rest of the family – it holds a significance for him in memories from childhood.

Making functional items and works of art from waste has its challenges. Bottle caps, for example, are tricky to use. “You want to do small pieces or tight-curved lines, but they are not easy to manipulate.”

The work is physically challenging as well. “When I am working with bottle tops, it doesn’t exactly sit on an easel, so I have to work with it on the floor and now I have constant back pain.”

Despite the challenges, Gbadamosi says he will continue working, as there is so much waste to work with, and so much happening in the world for his art to speak to.

“I want to always do pieces that can stand the test of time and be the best in the world.”

EDITORIAL article

Editorial: waste to wealth: a sustainable circular bioeconomy approach.

1 Department of Environmental Microbiology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, Institute of Microbiology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
2 Division of Microbiology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India
3 Department of Microbiology, Central University of Haryana, Mahendergarh, India

Editorial on the Research Topic Waste to wealth: A sustainable circular bioeconomy approach

As a consequence of industrialization, global urbanization, and economic development, solid waste generation is increasing rapidly, which requires immediate and effective solutions. Several scientific efforts in response to this challenge resulted in the production of valuable industrial products from waste materials, which is a key factor for the emerging circular bioeconomy concept ( Leong et al., 2021 ). Environmental friendly utilization of lignocellulosic biomass and/or waste materials for the production of value-added products often involves the use of biotechnology. The microbial enzymes convert the lignocellulosics into C6 and C5 sugars via enzymatic hydrolysis. Further, these sugars can be converted into targeted bio-products by specific microorganisms. Utilization of lignocellulosics for these value-added products will not only reduce the dependency on fossil fuels but will also help in environment friendly production of value-added products e.g., chemicals (like organic acids, furans, polyols, oligosaccharides, polyhydroxyalkanoates, etc.), or other bio-products (like phenolic compounds, pigments, fertilizers, etc.) ( Grewal et al., 2022 ; Singh et al., 2022 ).

This Research Topic on Waste to wealth: A sustainable circular bioeconomy approach provided a platform for novel research that aims to suggest new multidisciplinary theoretical and experimental designs for the process of utilizing agro-industrial waste materials for biorefineries by extracting not just bioenergy and/or biofuels but also other valuable platform chemicals, oligomers, and polymers.

The research focus of all the accepted papers was mainly the use of wild-type as well as genetically engineered microbes for the production of industrially important chemicals by utilizing agro-industrial wastes. The first research paper was mainly focused on the production and characterization of cellulases from Bacillus subtilis CD001 which was acidothermophilic in nature and might find widespread industrial applications in biomass saccharification ( Malik and Javed ). Another article by Jocquel et al. was engrossed on transglycosylation reaction using commercial enzymatic cocktail Cellic Ctec2 in the presence of pentanol which led to the synthesis of pentyl β-D-xylosides using xylans enzymatically derived from wheat bran. Another article by Zerva et al. again focused on β-Glucosidase and β-Galactosidase-Mediated Transglycosylation of Steviol Glycosides Utilizing Industrial Byproducts. In this study, the role of glycosyl hydrolases (i.e., β-glucosidase, MtBgl3a, and a β-galactosidase, TtbGal1) in the transglycosylation reaction of different steviol glycosides (mainly stevioside and rebaudioside A) was deciphered for the improvement of their taste as an artificial sweetener. To achieve this goal, they employed different low-cost industrial byproducts as sugar donors, such as cellulose hydrolyzate and acid whey for TtbGal1-and MtBgl3a-mediated bioconversion, respectively.

Further three papers focus on genetically engineered bacteria for different industrial applications. Burgardt et al. investigated the production of l -lysine-derived bifunctional monomers using metabolically engineered Corynebacterium glutamicum strains using wheat sidestream concentrate (WSC), a byproduct from the industrial starch production industry. They deciphered that heterologous expression of the genes xyl AXcBCg ( xyl A from Xanthomonas campestris ) and ara BADEc from Escherichia coli , along with supplementation of xylose and arabinose in WSC hydrolysate (WSCH) would increase the production of l -lysine. For the production of cadaverine and 5-aminovalerate (5AVA) using WSCH, the lysine decarboxylase gene ldc CEc from E. coli was expressed for the conversion to 5AVA cascaded either with putrescine transaminase and dehydrogenase genes pat DAEc or with putrescine oxidase gene puo Rq from Rhodococcus qingshengii and pat DEc. In another article, Tiwari et al. , successfully explored the catabolic pathway of levulinic acid (LA) in the genetically engineered Pseudomonas putida and engineered this strain for the sustainable production of propionic acid. Primarily, it was achieved by deleting the methylcitrate synthase ( Prp C) and propionyl-CoA synthase ( Prp E) genes in P. putida EM42 strain. Subsequently, a LA-inducible expression system was employed to express yci A (encoding thioesterase) from H. influenzae and ygf H (encoding propionyl-CoA: succinate CoA transferase) from E. coli to improve the propionic acid production by up to 10 folds.

Sathesh-Prabu et al. developed a levulinic acid (LA)-inducible and antibiotic-free plasmid system to produce highly beneficial, large-scale cost-effective microbial production of value-added products like 4-hydroxyvaleric acid from LA derived from renewable substrates. To achieve their goal, an engineered E. coli strain was developed by engineering the 5′ untranslated regions (UTR) of hpd R mRNA, and expressing the engineered 3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (3HBDH*) and formate dehydrogenase (CbFDH). Upscaling this process at a 5-L Fermenter level resulted in 82 g/L of 4-HV from LA in the fed-batch fermentation without adding antibiotics and external inducers. In summary, the articles published in this Research Topic mainly focused on the exploitation of microbial strains to generate high titer of unique metabolic byproducts by valorizing agro-industrial waste and side streams advocating a sustainable circular bioeconomy.

Author contributions

KP and LN wrote the editorial note. Each author edited the article’s final draft, contributed to it, and gave their approval to the version that was submitted.

Acknowledgments

We express our gratitude to the Journal Committee for providing us with the opportunity to establish the Research Topic, as well as to all the authors and reviewers for their efforts.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Grewal, J., Pyter, W., Joshi, N., Drewniak, L., and Pranaw, K. (2022). Colorful treasure from agro-industrial wastes: A sustainable chassis for microbial pigment production. Front. Microbiol. 13, 832918. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2022.832918

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Leong, H. Y., Chang, C. K., Khoo, K. S., Chew, K. W., Chia, S. R., Lim, J. W., et al. (2021). Waste biorefinery towards a sustainable circular bioeconomy: A solution to global issues. Biotechnol. Biofuels 14 (1), 87–15. doi:10.1186/s13068-021-01939-5

Singh, J., Sharma, A., Sharma, P., Tomar, G. S., Grover, M., Singh, S., et al. (2022). Production of ethanol, lipid, and lactic acid from mixed agrowastes hydrolysate. Nat. Prod. Res. 2022, 1–8. doi:10.1080/14786419.2022.2061480

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Keywords: circular economy, biorefinery, bioenergy, waste utilization, valorization, sustainable development, biobased chemical

Citation: Pranaw K, Drewniak L, Nain L and Singh S (2022) Editorial: Waste to wealth: A sustainable circular bioeconomy approach. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 10:1010811. doi: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.1010811

Received: 03 August 2022; Accepted: 09 September 2022; Published: 30 September 2022.

Edited and reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Pranaw, Drewniak, Nain and Singh. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Kumar Pranaw, [email protected] [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

How to create wealth from waste and reduce our landfill

Theme Leader, Australia's mineral futures, CSIRO

Disclosure statement

Anna Littleboy does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

CSIRO provides funding as a founding partner of The Conversation AU.

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While Australia’s rich stocks of raw mineral resources have contributed to the nation’s wealth and given us a competitive advantage we are also one of the highest waste producing nations in the world (on a per capita basis).

In 2009-10 we dumped 21.6 million tonnes of household and industrial waste in 918 landfill sites around Australia. Of all the waste we produced we recycled only about half (52%).

But can we do things differently? Can we change our production and consumption patterns to generate wealth from what we currently designate as waste?

The potential exists

Consider e-waste , which is the old TVs, DVDs, computers, household appliances and other electrical goods that we throw away. This type of waste has emerged as one of our fastest growing waste streams but only about 10% is recovered or recycled.

But e-waste devices also include valuable metals such as copper, silver, gold, palladium and other rare materials which means they are also ending up in landfill.

By 2008 we had already sent some 17 million televisions and 37 million computers to landfill, according to the Australian Bureau of Statistics ( ABS ).

But if 75% of the 1.5 million televisions discarded annually could be recycled we could save 23,000 tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions, 520 mega litres of water, 400,000 gigajoules of energy and 160,000 cubic metres of landfill space.

Another way of looking at this is to compare gold yielded from an open pit mine with that from discarded electrical goods. Mining yields 1 to 5 grams of gold for every one tonne of ore. From the same quantity of discarded mobile phones and computer circuit boards, you can extract 350 grams and 250 grams respectively.

The new urban mines

In a world increasingly addressing issues of sustainability, it’s no wonder that such end-of-life products are now being seen as urban mines – valuable sources of above-ground metals which can be recycled and reused.

That is the concept of the “ circular economy ”.

There is already some extensive recycling activity in Australia, helped by schemes such as the national Product Stewardship framework which encourages people to reduce waste.

But we still lose significant amounts of valuable and recyclable materials into landfill and park valuable metals in tailings and spoil heaps.

Given Australia is already a global leader in primary resource production from the ground, it is timely to think about how we might also adapt and grow our expertise to mine and process above ground stocks and remain at the cutting edge.

Can we lead the urban mining revolution?

Globally, there is already growing capacity and innovation in recycling.

New forms of manufacturing and business models are being developed that integrate secondary manufacturing of recycled materials.

So the potential is there to diversify and adapt Australia’s skills and technologies to support the new forms of processing and manufacturing in this circular economy.

Why don’t we do this?

A major challenge lies in the ability to persuade people and industry to see waste products as a resource rather than a liability. We need to create more responsive manufacturing, processing innovation and new business models around recycling.

This will challenge the way we currently operate as a nation and ask us to rethink how we relate to consumer markets around the world.

We can’t keep relying solely on our raw mineral resources. Some commentators are now discussing materials scarcity as a bigger issue than energy scarcity.

This scarcity is driving a move towards a circular economy – one in which the value created by inputs (materials, energy and labour) is extended by enabling a material life that goes beyond product life. So we go from mineral to metal, to product, back to metal and so on.

By understanding such economies and value of how this chain operates in Australia, we can begin to understand, at scale, the barriers and opportunities to more sustainable consumption and production in a resource limited future.

Looking for a new solution

That’s why CSIRO and its university partners led by University of Technology Sydney are today launching the Wealth from Waste Research Collaboration Cluster to do just this.

Although the technological challenges of complex materials processing are fascinating, it is innovative business models that hold the key to unlocking the wealth in our waste.

We also need to understand more about the cultural norms to see what needs changing.

Clean Up Australia found that around 14 million phones sit unused in drawers or cupboards, that’s equivalent to almost one unused phone for every two people in the country.

Although 90% of the materials within a mobile phone can be re-used, globally less than 10% of mobile phones are actually recycled. So why when we already have a solution do we not act to recycle our waste?

The research programme will be about finding new ways of doing things that accommodate our relatively small domestic materials market and challengs the mindset that size matters when it comes to complex materials processing.

If we wish to add urban mining to our global mining reputation then we need to couple research, industry and policy transitions for success in a future where recycling is an integral component of resource productivity, not a niche specialism.

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Waste to Wealth

Last updated on March 11, 2024 by ClearIAS Team

Due to waste generation and insufficient garbage collection, transportation, treatment, and disposal, India faces significant health, environmental, and economic concerns. To tackle the menace numerous initiatives have been taken out which waste to wealth a key one. Read here to know more about the waste to wealth mission.

Increased trash volumes and increasing use of paper, plastic, and other inorganic materials generating waste are two effects of rising affluence, fast-expanding but unplanned urbanization , and changing lifestyles in India.

The environment and public health in India are significantly impacted by improper waste management.

Along with addressing the urgent environmental and public health concerns brought on by the current solid waste management system, a long-term strategy must be developed to meet solid waste management in Indian cities’ future challenges.

Table of Contents

Waste management in India

Waste is majorly classified into- solid, e-waste , liquid , plastic , metal, and nuclear. These broadly fall into dry (non-biodegradable) and wet (biodegradable) waste.

The urban local bodies (ULBs) are responsible for the collection, transportation, disposal, and segregation of solid waste according to Municipal Solid Waste Management handling rules, 2000.

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In 2016, the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) notified the new Solid Waste Management Rules (SWM), 2016 that replaced the Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000.
Now the waste management rules were changed in India and were made applicable beyond municipal areas.
It now includes urban agglomerations, census towns, areas under the control of Indian Railways, airports, airbases, Ports, and harbors, defense establishments, special economic zones , and places of pilgrims, among others to manage the humongous amount of solid waste being generated in the country.

India’s sewage treatment facilities (STPs) are only equipped to handle little more than a third of the country’s daily sewage production as per Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).

Most of India’s dumpsites have exceeded their capacity and height limit of 20 meters.
It is estimated that these sites enclose more than 10,000 hectares of urban land.

Many cities are also resorting to waste-to-energy plants – waste management facility that burns waste to produce electricity.

Currently, 11 waste-to-energy plants are operational in India.
But, to function well, these plants require segregated waste, and even then, they don’t produce enough energy.

Poor waste management

The majority of the state government’s financial expenditures are being used for waste dumping methods, leaving the municipal bodies understaffed.
The segregation of household garbage is not widely understood by a sizable portion of the population. Trade trash that is improperly segregated ends up intermingled in landfills.
India lacks panel data or time series data related to solid or liquid waste. Therefore, it is highly challenging for the nation’s waste planners to evaluate the economy of trash management.
The majority of Indian towns have trash dumped on the outskirts, close to the villages, which affects the village environment and creates several health risks, leading to urban-rural conflict.

Waste to wealth mission

The Waste to Wealth Mission is one of the nine scientific missions of the Prime Minister’s Science, Technology, and Innovation Advisory Council (PMSTIAC).

The mission is spearheaded by the office of the Principal Scientific Adviser (PSA), Government of India.

The mission aims to identify, develop, and deploy technologies to treat waste to generate energy, recycle materials, and extract resources of value.

The vision of waste to wealth is to:

The mission will also work to identify and support the development of modern technologies that promise to create a clean and green environment.
The mission will assist and augment the Swachh Bharat and Smart Cities projects by leveraging science, technology, and innovation to create circular economic models that are financially viable for waste management to streamline waste handling in the country.
To create ready reckoners that are financially viable for waste management.
To streamline waste handling in India.

Circular Economy Action Plans for 10 waste categories have been finalized, and are under implementation:

Lithium-ion batteries
Toxic and hazardous industrial waste
Scrap metal (ferrous and non-ferrous)
Tyre and Rubber
End-of-Life Vehicles
Solar Panels
Municipal Solid Waste

Respective Nodal Ministries are coordinating the progress of the implementation of these action plans.

Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change is the Nodal Ministry for Circular Economy Action Plan for Tyre and Rubber and stakeholder ministry in other CE Action Plans.

Regulations on the market-based Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) principle have been notified for four categories of wastes i.e., plastic packaging waste, battery waste, e-waste, and waste tire.

In EPR for Plastic Packaging, targets for minimum recycling, minimum use of recycled content, and use of rigid plastic packaging in identified sizes have been mandated.
In rules incorporating the EPR principle that have been notified/amended this year, different targets of minimum recycling, minimum recovery percentage, and minimum use of recycled content have been given lead times to start with.
The optimum level will be reached over some time. This has been done to provide time to the industry as well as recyclers for the development of systems and recycling infrastructure.
Regulations to bring in EPR for end-of-life vehicles are under development.

Also read: Construction and Demolition waste management

Significance of waste to wealth

The ‘Waste-to-Energy’ and Waste Management market in India is set to be a $14bn opportunity by the year 2025. The population of 1.3 billion in India currently generates 62 million tonnes of municipal solid waste per year.

And by 2027, India is set to become the world’s most populous country as per projections of the United Nations with 7 new megacities.

At this exponential population and urban growth rate, landfills almost 90% of the size of Bengaluru would be required for dumping if the waste remains untreated.
Though rapid urbanization presents a humungous challenge, with the right policy framework and action, this challenge can be turned into a golden opportunity.

The benefits of effective waste management are immense.

India presents an opportunity in numerous subsectors of waste management including municipal solid waste, electronic waste, bio-medical waste, agricultural waste, and others.
It is predicted that India has the potential to generate 3GW of electricity from waste by 2050

The Waste-to-Wealth Mission/ Mission Circular Economy is bound to create new business models as well as new employment opportunities.

This will also result in the integration of the informal sector. Participation in the industry is of critical importance to make the Waste-to-Wealth Mission a success.
This will result in moving away from mindless consumption to mindful utilization and will help achieve the vision of Mission LiFE – Lifestyle for Environment.

Various other Indian cities were identified for the best practices of waste management.

Alappuzha (Kerala) and Panaji (Goa) for reducing operating costs through source segregation.
Mysuru (Karnataka) is applying scientific techniques to turn biodegradable garbage into compost.
Paradeep (Odisha) has adopted a decentralized and community-driven model with micro-composing centers and material recovery facilities.

Also read: E-Waste: Causes, Concerns and Management

Way forward

If the garbage is not controlled, it eventually finds its way to the land, where it may be dispersed, dumped in landfills, or polluted by it.

Waste may both be a resource and a problem for the environment. Ineffective waste management causes substantial material loss and may be harmful to the environment and public health.

This means that we must try to generate as little non-hazardous waste as possible. Where it is environmentally appropriate, material recycling should take precedence over energy recycling for rubbish that still gets created.

The emphasis should be on source segregation, especially by using taxation policy to make fresh plastic and other trash creation more expensive than recycling.

To establish waste-to-energy units, innovative concepts and new firms need to receive financial backing.
Landfills should be provided by all local governments in proportion to the waste they generate after recycling.
A new tax could be implemented to charge producers according to the amount of rubbish they produce.
This will assist in raising the necessary funding for the infrastructure of solid and liquid waste management.
The major responsibility for treating and selling treated water for agricultural and industrial use should be placed on the producer and the private sector.
The complexities and relationships both inside and outside of government must be taken into account in waste management governance.

Also Read: Solid Waste Management; Solar Waste Management

-Article written by Swathi Satish

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Environmental Management in India: Waste to Wealth

© 2022
Shalini Yadav 0 ,
Abdelazim M. Negm ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4838-5558 1 ,
Ram Narayan Yadava 2

Centre of Excellence in Advanced Water and Environmental Research, Rabindranath Tagore University, Bhopal, India

You can also search for this editor in PubMed Google Scholar

Faculty of Engineering, Water and Water Structures Engineering Department, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt

Research and international affairs, madhyanchal professional university, bhopal, india.

Provides sufficient information on the technologies to transfer the waste to wealth in India
Presents how the solid waste can be used to increase the agriculture productivity in India
Includes recent information on how nanoparticles could be used in waste management

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About this book

This book presents unique connectivity between waste management within the agenda 2030 of India. This book is the first publication presenting up-to-date work and knowledge about waste management and waste technologies to transfer waste to wealth in India. Besides, this book also presents the role of waste management and its contribution to achieving a sustainable development program in India, with vast implication worldwide. The main focuses of the book include waste and wealth and the associated technologies, recycling of solid waste, utilization of hazardous waste, use of nanoparticle in waste management, urban solid waste, generation of energy from organic waste, clean technologies, and use of waste in agriculture. The book is a unique source of information on the transformation of waste to wealth in India. This book is of interest to research communities in the field of waste management in India, and in similar socioeconomic countries, but also, due to the planetary implications, has global interest.

Environmental Management and Sanitation: Perspectives on Waste

Waste Management Outlook for the Middle East

Introduction to the “Waste Management in MENA Regions”

Energy recovery
Waste Management
Medical geology
Clean Technology
Sustainable Development

Table of contents (13 chapters)

Front matter, introduction, waste management and the agenda 2030 in the indian context, waste to wealth, solid waste management methods: a technological analysis of mechanical, chemical, thermal and hybrid means.

Neha Shukla, Neelancherry Remya

Characterization and Sustainable Utilization of Steel Slag (SS) as a Recycled Aggregates in Indian Concrete Industry

Vidyadhar V. Gedam, Pawan Labhasetwar, Christian J. Engelsen

Application of Green Synthesis of Nanoparticles for Removal of Heavy Metal Ion from Industrial Waste Water

Supriya Singh, Pratibha, Vanshika Singh, Sudesh Kumar

Waste Management in Indian Pharmaceutical Industries

Shivangi Upadhyay, Alok Sinha

Erosion Management of Riparian Ecosystem in Coal Mining Area Through Selective Vegetation

Nishant K. Srivastava, R. C. Tripathi

Waste to Energy

Urban solid waste management for enhancement of agricultural productivity in india.

Rana Rishi, Ganguly Rajiv

Food Waste Utilization for the Production of Biogas by Anaerobic Digestion: A Case Study in Coal Capital of India

Raj Shekhar Singh, R. K. Singh, N. Tripathi

Development of Low-Cost Microbial Fuel Cell for Converting Waste to Electricity and Abating Pollution

Makarand M. Ghangrekar, Bikash R. Tiwari

Recent Developments in Energy Recovery from Sewage Treatment Plant Sludge via Anaerobic Digestion

Raja Sonal Anand, Pramod Kumar

Waste and Sustainability

Management of waste plastic: conversion and its degradation as an environment concern in asian country.

Pratibha, Sudesh Kumar, Supriya Singh, Vanshika Singh

Gold Phytomining in India: An Approach to Circular Economy in the 21st Century

Sahendra Singh

Conclusions

Update, conclusions and recommendations for “environment management: waste to wealth in india”.

Abdelazim M. Negm, El-Sayed E. Omran, Shalini Yadav, Ram Narayan Yadava

Editors and Affiliations

Shalini Yadav

Abdelazim M. Negm

Ram Narayan Yadava

About the editors

Prof. Shalini Yadav is Professor and Head Centre of Excellence in Advanced Water and Environmental Research, Rabindranath Tagore University, Bhopal, India. Her research interests include solid and hazardous waste management, construction management, environmental quality, and water resources. She has executed a variety of research projects/consultancy in environmental and water science and technology and has got rich experience in planning, formulating, organizing, executing, and management of R&D programs, seminars, and conferences at national and international levels. She has got to her credit guiding an appreciable number of M.Tech. and Ph.D. students. She has published more than 10 journal articles and 30 technical reports. Dr. Shalini has also visited and delivered invited lectures at different institutes/universities in India and abroad, such as Australia, South Korea, and Kenya. She is one of the editors of seven books, namely climate change impacts, water resources management, groundwater, energy and environment, environmental pollution, hydrologic and modeling, water quality management which are published recently by the Springer under the Water Science and Technology Library. Professor Shalini Yadav graduated with a B.Sc. in Science from the Bhopal University. She earned her M.Sc. in Applied Chemistry with a specialization in Environmental Science from Bhopal University and M.Tech. in Civil Engineering with a specialization in Environmental Engineering from Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, India, in 2000. Then she pursued the degree of Ph.D. in Civil Engineering from Rajiv Gandhi Technical University, Bhopal, India in 2011. Also, she is Recipient of national fellowships and awards. She is Reviewer for many international journals. She has been recognized for one and half decades of leadership in research, teaching, and service to the environmental engineering profession.

Prof. Abdelazim Negm is a professor of Hydraulics (and Water Resources) in the Water and Water Structures Engineering Department at the Faculty of Engineering at Zagazig University (ZU). He worked as a demonstrator in the Faculty of Engineering, ZU in 1986 and continued there until he occupied the position of Vice Dean for Academic and Student Affairs. He worked for the Egypt–Japan University of Science and Technology (E-JUST) as a professor of Water Resources from December 2012 until September 2016, and was chairperson of the Environmental Engineering Department at E-JUST from March 2013 until March 2016. Professor Negm has published more than 350 scientific papers in national and international journals and conferences and about fifty book chapters. He has participated in more than 99 conferences and was a keynote speaker at several national and international conferences. He has been awarded prizes for best papers three times. His research areas include hydraulics, hydrology, and water resources. Currently, he is very interested in sustainability studies, sustainable development, and the green environment in addition to water resources management. Professor Negm is a member of IAHR and is the head of the Egyptian permanent scientific committee for Water Resources for the promotion of associate and professorship positions for the cycle 2019–2022, and was the Vice Head for the cycle 2016–2019. He is a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals and international conferences and was a member of the organizing committee of Oceanography 2015, and IWTC2013-IWTC2017, and others. Additionally, he was Secretary-General of the IWTC from 2013 until 2017, then a member of the scientific committee. He was the head of the ZU committee for the assessment of the scientific publications of ZU faculties until December 2018. Recently, he published more than 35 contributed edited volumes by Springer publishing House in Handbook of Environmental chemistry, Springer Water, Geophysics, Earth and Environmental Sciences Library, …etc.) Currently, he is organizing several contributed volumes to be published by Springer International Publishing during 2022/2023. He was the editor-in-chief of EIJEST (Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University from 2016 to 2020), associate editor of IWTJ (IWTA) and EMJEI (Springer), and guest lead editor of AJGS–Springer, Sustainability Journal (MDPI), EJRSSS (Elsevier) and Scientific African Journal (Elsevier) and a member of the editorial board in others. He is the principal investigator of several international projects with UK, Italy and USA colleagues based on institutional collaboration. Currently, he is a member of the editorial board of the HEC series. Professor Negm is listed in: Marquis’ Who’s Who? for more than ten years until now; IBC’s 2000 Outstanding Intellectuals of the 21st Century; and the ABI directory for his achievement in the fields of hydraulics and water resources. He has been nominated for many other awards from both IBC and ABI. .

Prof. R N Yadava holds position of Director of Research and International Affairs in Madhyanchal Professional University, Bhopal (M.P.), India and Advisor of Patel Group of Institutions, India. He has worked as Advisor of AISECT Group of Universities and Founding Vice Chancellor of the AISECT University, Hazaribag (Jharkhand), India; and as Director Gr. Scientist at the Natural Resources Development Center of the CSIR-AMPRI, Bhopal (M.P.), India including a founding member of CSIR_AMPRI, Bhopal (M.P.), India. His research interests include solid mechanics, environmental quality and water resources, hydrologic modeling, environmental sciences, and R&D planning and management. Dr. Yadava has executed a variety of research/consultancy projects in the area of water resources planning and management, environment, remote sensing, mathematical modeling, technology forecasting, etc. He has adequate experience in establishing institutes/organizations such as research institution, academic organization, etc. Also he has adequate experience in planning, formulating, organizing, executing and management of R&D programs including organizing seminars/symposia/conferences at national and international levels. He has got to his credit guiding a number of M. Tech. and Ph.D. students in the area of mathematical sciences and earth sciences. Dr. Yadava has visited and delivered invited lectures at different institutes/universities in India as well as in abroad in the various countries such as USA, Canada, UK, Thailand, Germany, South Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, South Africa, Costa Rica, The Netherlands, France, China, and Australia. He earned a M.Sc. degree in Mathematics with specialization in Special Functions and Relativity from Banaras Hindu University, India, in 1970 and a Ph.D. degree in Mathematics with specialization in Solid Mechanics from Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, India, in 1975. Also, he is Recipient of Raman Research Fellowship and other awards.

Dr. Yadava has been recognized for three and half decades of leadership in research and service to the hydrologic, environment and water resources profession. Dr. Yadava’s contribution to the state of the art has been signiﬁcant in many different specialty areas, including water resources management, environmental sciences, irrigation science, soil and water conservation engineering, and mathematical modeling. He has published more than 90 journal articles; four text books; fourteen edited reference books. He is reviewer of scientific journals and member of the scientific committee of international conferences. Also he holds position of Vice President of International Association of Water, Environment, Energy and Society.

Bibliographic Information

Book Title : Environmental Management in India: Waste to Wealth

Editors : Shalini Yadav, Abdelazim M. Negm, Ram Narayan Yadava

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93897-0

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Earth and Environmental Science , Earth and Environmental Science (R0)

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-030-93896-3 Published: 02 April 2022

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-030-93899-4 Published: 04 April 2023

eBook ISBN : 978-3-030-93897-0 Published: 01 April 2022

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : X, 274

Number of Illustrations : 21 b/w illustrations, 47 illustrations in colour

Topics : Waste Management/Waste Technology , Environmental Management , Sustainable Development , Water Policy/Water Governance/Water Management

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DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-34631-w
Corpus ID: 271743361

Bioconversion of industrial wastes to hydrogen: A review on waste-to-wealth technologies.

Sudarshan Sahu , Archita Sharma , +2 authors S. Arya
Published in Environmental science and… 7 August 2024
Environmental Science, Chemistry, Biology, Engineering

5 References

Techno-economic evaluation of a combined bioprocess for fermentative hydrogen production from food waste., bio-hydrogen production from buffalo waste with rumen inoculum and metagenomic characterization of bacterial and archaeal community, advances in sewage sludge application and treatment: process integration of plasma pyrolysis and anaerobic digestion with the resource recovery, microbiological insights into anaerobic digestion for biogas, hydrogen or volatile fatty acids (vfas): a review, dark fermentation of pretreated hydrolysates of pineapple fruit waste for the production of biohydrogen using bacteria isolated from wastewater sources, related papers.

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We should turn waste into wealth

Hedwig Arinaitwe

By Guest Columnists

What you need to know:

“We need to stop pointing figures and utilise technology to turn waste into wealth, by recyling...biodegradable waste

Waste management has been a lingering problem for Uganda, but no one saw the darkness it was brewing all these years.

Who ever thought that in the year 2024 in a country called the pearl of Africa, a woman would scream her lungs out, and sob terribly following the demise of her children? How about the shock of finding a tombstone written on the cause of death: Kiteezi landfill collapse? The questions are many but the answers are few.

We all failed the victims. We all slept on the job. It is even hard to tell the aggrieved families to find strength in this trying time.

Needless to say, it is rather embarrassing to see other countries advancing to bigger goals like achieving carbon neutrality, while Uganda can’t even safeguard her citizens.

According to the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), 600 tonnes of plastic garbage is generated by Uganda’s population every single day but only 8 percent is recycled. Further, data from Kampala Waste Management Report reveals that between 2000- 2,500 tonnes of waste is produced daily, making the country vulnerable to waste management challenges.

For Uganda to turn towards a waste intolerant country there has to be intentionality from the top authorities down to the households, and individuals. It’s a game of all and very achievable.

According to Kampala City Council Authority records, more than 1,000 people earned their living from the Kiteezi site picking plastics, scrap, waste, paper clothes, among others. This means that families were fetching a few shillings to afford a living.

For better sustainable waste management in Uganda, we must come up with a strategic waste separation, starting from local level to national level hence enabling sorting and recycling.

If Uganda’s future on waste management is to prosper, we must stop importing foreign garbage from these so-called big nations, desperate to find a dumping site for their trash. A good parent will discourage his or her children from eating the leftovers off visitor’s plates and so must Ugandans.

Our laws on waste management are just like wishes, when and how did the ‘‘kaveera” ban disappear, what is the role of the enforcers if such laws can’t be stringent.

We need to stop pointing figures and utilise technology to turn waste into wealth, by recycling, making manure from biodegradable waste. We hit two birds with one stone, as we keep our people safe, we create jobs for the thousands of unemployed youth and reduce the skyrocketing number of mental health issues.

Today it’s kiteezi, tomorrow could be the Rwizi river in western Uganda because floods and landslides are now common occurrences in Uganda due to climate change and poor waste management, among others.

In the 2023 climate change plan , Uganda committed to reducing its net greenhouse gas emissions from 22 percent to 24 percent in the Nationally Determined contribution . But is it possible?

We can’t have this discussion without looking at where the garbage that doesn’t have trucks transporting it to the landfill ends up. Much of the waste from manufacturing companies, and industries is allegedly dumped in wetlands, rivers and lakes during the night or when it is raining.

We have a vivid example of River Rwizi, which had choked on plastic garbage, until activists said enough is enough. River Nile has smelly water from the continuous dumping allegedly by some factories, homesteads, name them. You may argue that it’s a small percentage but the African proverb says when a nose is overly scratched, it can produce blood. We all play a role, and so must get to work.

There are three things we must do to solve Uganda’s waste management challenges. They are, strengthening the supervision and management responsibilities of the government, encouraging technological innovation by youth around waste exclusion and recycling and banning importation of foreign waste that is branded as second-hand clothes, shoes, among others. Uganda is not a dumping site.

Hedwig Arinaitwe Founder and Team Lead Climate Women Media Action.

Kiteezi: Indicator of poor planning

KCAA should, thereby handle the garbage dumping sites as important as the way you handle your salaries at the end of the month

PRIME Kiteezi tragedy is the price we have paid for living in poverty

Ugandans are desperate for homes, but they cannot afford decent, modern houses

Someone must be held responsible for Kiteezi disaster – Wakiso RDC

Without mentioning individuals, Mr Kyazze said the Kiteezi landfill tragedy was not an accident but a man-made disaster, which could have been avoided

PRIME Kiteezi: Sorry is not enough

Uganda has a track record of heaping one avoidable disaster on the back of another, but does the Kiteezi landfill debacle finally represent a tipping point where those found to be criminally...

PRIME Kiteezi disaster: A wake-up call for better governance

Beyond the immediate response to the disaster, there is a critical need for a long-term strategy...

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UN Women HQ

Turning waste into wealth-the Biomass Briquette Revolution

Date: Monday, 19 August 2024

In the sun-drenched Nawata Village in Zomba, nestled in the Shire highlands of Malawi, a group of thirty women has harnessed the power of innovation to transform their lives and protect their surroundings. Thanks to a UN Women-supported project, funded by the Government of Australia, the women are united by a common purpose: to create sustainable biomass briquettes that replace traditional firewood.

The Birth of a Sustainable Solution

Their journey began in May, 2024, when these enterprising women were brought together by the Women’s Resilience to Disaster Programme, implemented in partnership with CARE International with support from UN Women and funded by the Government of Australia. Their mission? To have clean, efficient fuel alternatives—to replace traditional firewood.

Regina Jalasi, a member of Nawata Women’s Group, reflects on the journey. “We used to venture into the forests, axes in hand, felling trees for firewood,” she says. “But now, we’ve turned waste into wealth.”

Not long ago, Regina faced a dilemma. To cook meals for her family, she resorted to using her children’s schoolbooks as kindling. The smoke-filled kitchen, the hurried cooking, and the ever-present fear of firewood running out—it was a daily struggle.

Jessie Nkunda, another member of the group, vividly recalls their first meeting. “We discovered the goodness of being part of a women’s group,” she says. “Together, we learned to make briquettes from agriculture, and household waste. No longer did we need to sacrifice our children’s education for a simple meal” she narrates.

Briquette samples. Photo: UN Women/Faith Mvula

The Briquette Recipe: A Blend of Resourcefulness and Care

From waste such as maize by products and other natural materials, the group are making efficient briquettes that emit less smoke and burn longer than firewood. Waste that once cluttered their homes—rice husks, maize byproducts—finds new purpose. CARE International with support of UN Women trained them on briquette-making techniques, and together, they have built resilience, empowered women, and preserved nature while igniting hope.

Regina’s group started modestly, producing small bags of briquettes to be sold. Their sales strategy was simple yet effective: they sold directly within their surrounding villages. The results were promising. Soon, they expanded their reach, selling more bags.

But Regina dreams bigger. “We need a briquette-making machine,” she asserts. “With it, we can produce more, faster.”

A Gathering of Hope

The women meet every Tuesday, envisioning a future beyond their village. Markets beckon as men too embrace this unique endeavor—one where the women lead the way.

Regina’s plea echoes through the Malawian landscape: “Extend this initiative. Let every household adopt it. Our trees, our health, our prosperity—they are all intertwined.”

And so, in the heart of Malawi, the briquette flames burn bright—a beacon of resilience, unity, and progress.

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A suburban street with mountains in the background, featuring a girl on a bike, parked cars, and old furniture on the sidewalk in front of a house.

Photo by Harry Gruyaert/Magnum

The great wealth wave

The tide has turned – evidence shows ordinary citizens in the western world are now richer and more equal than ever before.

by Daniel Waldenström + BIO

Recent decades have seen private wealth multiply around the Western world, making us richer than ever before. A hasty glance at the soaring number of billionaires – some doubling as international celebrities – prompts the question: are we also living in a time of unparalleled wealth inequality? Influential scholars have argued that indeed we are. Their narrative of a new gilded age paints wealth as an instrument of power and inequality. The 19th-century era with low taxes and minimal market regulation allowed for unchecked capital accumulation and then, in the 20th century, the two world wars and progressive taxation policies diminished the fortunes of the wealthy and reduced wealth gaps. Since 1980, the orthodoxy continues, a wave of market-friendly policies reversed this equalising historical trend, boosting capital values and sending wealth inequality back towards historic highs.

The trouble with the powerful new orthodoxy that tries to explain the history of wealth is that it doesn’t fully square with reality. New research studies, and more careful inspection of the previous historical data, paint a picture where the main catalysts for wealth equalisation are neither the devastations of war nor progressive tax regimes. War and progressive taxation have had influence, but they cannot count as the main forces that led to wealth inequality falling dramatically over the past century. The real influences are instead the expansion from below of asset ownership among everyday citizens, constituted by the rise of homeownership and pension savings. This popular ownership movement was made possible by institutional changes, most important democracy, and followed suit by educational reforms and labour laws, and the technological advancements lifting everyone’s income. As a result, workers became more productive and better paid, which allowed them to get mortgages to purchase their own homes; homeownership rates soared in the West from the middle of the century. As standards of living improved, life spans increased so that people started saving for retirement, accumulating another important popular asset.

Today, the populations of Europe and the United States are substantially richer in terms of real purchasing-power wealth than ever before. We define wealth as the value of all assets, such as homes, bank deposits, stocks and pension funds, less all debts, mainly mortgages. When counting wealth among all adults, data show that its value has increased more than threefold since 1980, and nearly 10 times over the past century. Since much of this wealth growth has occurred in the types of assets that ordinary people hold – homes and pension savings – wealth has also become more equally distributed over time. Wealth inequality has decreased dramatically over the past century and, despite the recent years’ emergence of super-rich entrepreneurs, wealth concentration has remained at its historically low levels in Europe and has increased mainly in the US.

Among scholars in economics and economic history, a new narrative is just beginning to emerge, one that accentuates this massive rise of middle-class ownership and its implications for society’s total capital stock and its distribution. Capitalism, it seems, did not result in boundless inequality, even after the liberalisations of the 1980s and corporate growth in the globalised era. The key to progress, measured as a combination of wealth growth and falling or sustained inequality, has been political and institutional change that enabled citizens to become educated, better paid, and to amass wealth through housing and pension savings.

I n his book Capital in the Twenty-First Century (2014), Thomas Piketty examined the long-run evolution of capital and wealth inequality since industrialisation in a few Western economies. The book quickly received wide acclaim among both academics and policymakers, and it even became a worldwide bestseller.

Piketty’s narrative outlined wealth accumulation and concentration as following a U-shaped pattern over the past century. At the time of the outbreak of the First World War, wealth levels and inequality peaked as a result of an unregulated capitalism, low taxation or democratic influence. During the 20th century, wartime capital destruction and postwar progressive taxes slashed wealth among the rich and equalised ownership. Since 1980, however, goes Piketty’s narrative, neoliberal policies have boosted capital values and wealth inequality towards historic levels.

Immediately after publication, Capital generated fierce debate among economists, focused primarily on the book’s theoretical underpinnings. For example, Piketty had sketched a couple of ‘fundamental laws’ of capitalism, defining the economic importance of aggregate wealth. The first law stated that the share of capital income in total income (the other share coming from labour) is a function of how much capital there is in the economy and its rate of return to capital owners. The second law stated that the amount of capital in the economy, measured as its share in total output, is determined by the balance between saving to accumulate capital and income growth. While these laws were actually fairly uncontroversial relationships, almost definitions, they laid out a mechanistic view of inequality trends that attracted considerable attention and scrutiny among Piketty’s fellow theoretical economists.

My work arrives at a striking new conclusion for the history of wealth and inequality in the West

However, what the academic debate cared less about was the empirical side of the analysis. Almost nothing was said about the historical data and the empirical conclusions underlying the claims about U-shaped patterns and main driving forces. The void in critical scrutiny exposed a widespread disinterest among mainstream economists in history and the fine-grained aspects of source materials, measurement and institutional contexts.

In recent years, a new strand of historical wealth inequality research has emerged from universities around the world. It offers a more nuanced empirical picture, including new data and revised evidence, pointing to different results and interpretations. In Piketty’s book, most of the analysis centred on the historical experiences of France, and then there was additional evidence presented for the United Kingdom and Germany (together making up Europe) and the US. Newer work reexamines and extends the historical wealth accumulation and inequality trends. Some of these contributions also revise the earlier data series, such as those analysing Germany and the UK. Other studies expand the empirical base by incorporating previously unexplored countries, such as Spain and Sweden. A number of ongoing research projects into the history of wealth distribution examine more new countries, including Switzerland, the Netherlands and Canada. Their findings will soon be added to this historical wealth database.

My work with new data, published in my book Richer and More Equal (2024), arrives at a new conclusion for the history of wealth and inequality in the West. The new results are striking. Data show that we are both richer and more equal today than we were in the past. An accumulation of housing wealth and pension savings among workers in the middle classes emerges as the main factor producing greater equality: today, three-fourths of all private assets are either homes or long-term pension and insurance savings.

U nderlying the change in personal wealth formation over the 20th century are a number of political and economic developments. The democratisation of the Western world began with the extension of universal suffrage during the 1910s. This movement initiated a process of reforming the educational system, to extend basic schooling to the population and facilitating access to higher education. New labour laws improved working life by restricting the working hours per day, allowing unions to be active. Better training and nicer workplaces raised worker productivity and earnings, creating opportunity for working- and middle-class households to purchase their own homes. The improved living standards also led to longer lives. Between the 1940s and today, life expectancy at birth increased by almost 20 years in Western countries, most of which were spent in retirement. Pension systems started evolving during the postwar era, both as public-sector unfunded systems based on promises about a future income, and as private-sector funded systems where individual pension funds were accumulated as part of people’s long-term saving.

At the core of the new findings are three empirical observations.

The first is that the populations in Western countries are richer today than ever before in history. By rich, again, I mean having a high level of average wealth in the adult population. Why this measure of riches captures relevant aspects of welfare is because higher wealth permits a lot of good things in life. It allows for higher consumption, more savings and larger investment for future prosperity. It also promises better insurance against unforeseen events. Figure 1 below illustrates the growth in the average real per-capita wealth in a selection of Western countries over the past 130 years. It is dramatic. During the first half of the past century, the average wealth in the Western population hovered at a stable level. Since the end of the Second World War, asset values started to increase, doubling the level in only a couple of decades. From 1950 to 2020, average wealth in the West increased sevenfold.

Over the past 130 years, a monumental shift in wealth composition has taken place

A fact to notice specifically is how wealth has grown each single postwar decade up to the present day. For several reasons, this consistency of growth is a marvel. It affirms the robustness of the result: we are wealthier today than in history, and this fact does not depend on the choice of start or end date but holds regardless of the time period considered. The steady increase in wealth is not confined to investment-driven growth in Europe’s early postwar decades. Neither does it hinge on the market liberalisations of the 1980s and ’90s. However, it is notable how the lifting of regulations and the historically high taxes since the 1980s are indeed associated with the highest pace of value-creation that the Western world has ever experienced.

Line graph showing the rise in average wealth (in thousand 2022 US dollars) from 1900 to 2022, with a sharp increase post-1950.

Figure 1: rising real average wealth in the Western world. Note: wealth is expressed in real terms, meaning that it is adjusted for the rise in consumer prices and thus expresses change in purchasing power. The line is an unweighted mean of the average wealth in the adult population in six countries (France, Germany, Spain, Sweden, the UK and the US) expressed in constant 2022 US dollars. Source: Waldenström (2024, Chapter 2)

A second fact coming out of the historical evidence is that wealth in the aggregate has changed in its appearance. The composition of assets people hold tells us about the economic structure of society and what functions wealth plays in the population. For example, whether most assets are tied to the agricultural economy or to industrial activities signifies the degree of economic modernisation in the historical analysis. The importance of ordinary people’s assets in the aggregate signifies the degree to which workers take part in the value-creation processes of the market economy. Figure 2 below displays the division across asset classes in the aggregate portfolio since the end of the 19th century. It is evident that, over the past 130 years, a monumental shift in wealth composition has taken place. A century ago, wealth comprised primarily agricultural land and industrial capital. Today, the majority of personal wealth is tied up in housing and pension funds.

A graph showing the distribution of elite vs people’s wealth from 1900 to 2010, with people’s wealth rising over time.

Figure 2: the aggregate composition of assets: from elite wealth to people’s wealth . Note: unweighted average of six countries (France, Germany, Spain, Sweden, the UK and the US). Source: Waldenström (2024, Chapter 3)

The transformation of wealth composition has strong distributional implications. Individual ownership data, often called microdata, show how ownership structures across wealth distribution bear a pattern of who owns what. Historically, the rich held agricultural estates and shares in industrial corporations. This is especially true over the long term of history, but it remains so now too. In contrast, the working population acquires wealth in their homes and long-term savings in pension funds. Homeownership rates today range from 50 to 80 per cent. Labor-force participation rates are even higher. In substance, this tells us that housing and work-related pension funds are assets that dominate the ownership of ordinary people in the lower and middle classes, which in turn links the relative aggregate importance of housing and pension funds for wealth inequality.

L ooking closer at the relationship between the share of a country’s citizens who own their homes and the level of wealth inequality, the distributional pattern becomes evident. Figure 3 below plots countries according to their homeownership rates and wealth inequality, as measured by the common Gini coefficient that ranges from 0 (no inequality) to 1 (one individual owns everything), using recent wealth and homeownership surveys. Countries with higher levels of homeownership have lower wealth inequality. The straight line in the figure has a negative slope, which suggests that raising the homeownership rate by 10 points leads to an expected reduction in wealth inequality by 0.04 Gini points. As an example, France has a lower homeownership than Italy ( 60 per cent compared with 70 per cent), and a higher wealth inequality (0.67 versus Italy’s 0.61).

Scatter plot showing the relationship between wealth inequality (Gini index) and homeownership rates for various countries with a red trend line.

Figure 3: homeownership and wealth inequality in Europe and the US. Source: Waldenström (2024, Chapter 6)

The historical shift in the nature of wealth, from being elite-centric to more democratic, can thus be expected to have profound implications for the distribution of wealth. Figure 4 below presents the most recent data from European countries and the US. They reveal in graphical form how wealth inequality has decreased substantially over the past century. The wealthiest percentile once held around 60 per cent of all wealth. The share ranged from 50 per cent of wealth in the US and Germany to 70 per cent in the UK.

Most wealth today is in homes and pensions, assets predominantly of low- and middle-wealth households

Since the first half of the 20th century, the tide has turned. A great wealth equalisation took place throughout the Western world. From the 1920s to the 1970s, wealth concentration fell steadily. In the 1970s, wealth equalisation stopped, but then Europe and the US follow separate paths. In Europe, top wealth shares stabilise at historically low levels, perhaps with a slight increasing tendency. As of 2010, the richest 1 per cent in society holds a share of total wealth at around 20 per cent in Europe. That is roughly one-third of its share of national wealth from a century earlier. Countries like the UK, the Netherlands, Italy and Finland have top percentile shares of around 16-18 per cent. A bit higher are countries like Spain, Denmark, Norway and Sweden with top shares at around 21-24 per cent. Germany has an even higher share, around 27 per cent, and Switzerland’s richest percentile group owns about 30 per cent of all wealth.

This stability of post-1970 top wealth shares may seem contradictory when contrasted with the large increases in aggregate wealth values over recent decades. However, it is consistent with most of the asset ownership patterns documented above, with most of wealth today being in housing and pensions, assets predominantly held by low- and middle-wealth households.

The US wealth concentration experience is somewhat different. Wealth inequality in the beginning of the 20th century was somewhat lower in the US than in most European countries, perhaps reflecting being a younger nation with less established elite structures. The equalisation trend also happened in the US, but it was less pronounced than in Europe. Today, US wealth concentration is currently much higher than in Europe. This situation, as the figure below shows, is the result of several years of steady increase. In historical perspective, however, even the current US level of wealth inequality is lower than it was before the Second World War, and it pales in comparison with the extreme levels of wealth concentration that the people of Europe experienced 100 years ago.

Line graph titled ‘The Great Wealth Equalization over the Twentieth Century’ showing the top 1% wealth share in six countries from 1900 to 2010.

Figure 4: the great wealth equalisation over the 20th century. Source: Waldenström (2024, Chapter 5)

H ow can we account for these historical trends showing a steady growth in average household wealth and, at the same time, wealth inequality falling to historically low levels, where it has remained in Europe but has risen lately in the US? One approach is to break down the top wealth shares into the accumulation of wealth in the top and bottom groups of the distribution. In other words, we decompose the change in top wealth shares by documenting the changes in absolute wealth holdings in the numerator and denominator of the top wealth-share ratio. Figure 5 below shows these numbers, and they are striking.

During no historical time period during the past century did the wealth amounts of the rich fall on average. The falling wealth concentration from 1910 to 1980 was instead the result of wealth accumulating faster in the middle classes than in the top. Since 1950, wealth holdings have actually grown in the entire population. Between 1950 and 1980, it grew faster among the lower groups in the wealth distribution, explaining the continued equalisation. After 1980, wealth has instead grown faster in the top percentile than in the lower classes, which accounts for the halt of the long equalisation trend and a slight upward trend in the top wealth share, driven by the US development, whereas the European countries remained at its historically low levels.

Bar chart showing average yearly changes from 1910–2010 in the 1% wealth share, middle class wealth, and rich people’s wealth.

Figure 5: Western wealth growth: the middle class vs the rich. The graph shows a six-country average (France, Germany, Spain, Sweden, the UK, the US) of the average annual growth rate of real (inflation-adjusted) net wealth per adult individual in the top 1 per cent and the lower 90 per cent of the wealth distribution during three time periods. Source: Waldenström (2024, Chapter 6)

Looking at the specific factors that could account for these trends in wealth growth and wealth inequality, there are some that match the evidence better than others. According to the orthodox narrative, the main explanation was the shocks to capital during the world wars and postwar capital taxes, all of which are believed to have created equality through lowering the top of the wealth distribution. In this telling, the physical capital destruction in wars reduced the fortunes of the rich, and the immediate postwar hikes in capital taxes and market regulations, such as price controls and capital market restrictions, prevented the entrepreneurs from rebuilding their wealth.

Wealth and inheritance taxes reached almost confiscatory levels in the early 1970s

However, the thesis has some issues. One is that the evidence shows little difference between belligerent and non-belligerent countries. During both wars, the wealth share of the top 1 per cent fell equally in belligerent countries like France and the UK as in non-belligerent Sweden. Including the immediate postwar years, which were heavily influenced by wartime turbulence, does not change this pattern. Germany’s data from the wars is less clear, but it appears that the country experienced larger losses than others, reducing top wealth shares. Spain, which stayed out of both world wars but fought a civil war in the 1930s, saw the wealth share of the richest 1 per cent remain virtually unchanged between 1936 and 1939, according to preliminary estimates. Looking at the US, top wealth shares fell during both wars.

Analysing instead the changes in absolute wealth held by the rich and by the rest reinforces the conclusion that wars were not a devastating moment for capital owners. In fact, the fortunes of the elite did not shrink significantly, except in France during the First World War and seemingly in Germany during both wars. In other cases, the capital values of the rich remained almost constant, and the wealth equalisation observed can be attributed to growing ownership among groups below the top tier.

Progressive tax policies after the Second World War offer another potential explanation for the wealth-equalisation trend. Capital taxation increased rapidly between the 1950s and the 1980s in most Western countries. Wealth and inheritance taxes reached almost confiscatory levels in the early 1970s, and this coincided with stagnating business activities, few startups, slowed economic growth, and an exodus of prominent entrepreneurs from high- to low-tax countries. Few studies have been able to analyse systematically the extent to which these taxes prevented the rise of new large fortunes, but studies of later periods suggest that there are good grounds to believe they did.

A general problem for the factors above – which focus on shocks to the capital of the rich and thus lowering the top of wealth distribution as the primus motor behind the great wealth equalisation of the 20th century – is that the evidence presented in Figure 5 above shows that it was instead the lifting of the bottom of the distribution that accounted for the equalisation. Let us therefore shift focus and examine the two main channels through which this happened: the accumulation of homeownership and saving for retirement.

At the turn of the 20th century, owning a decent home and saving for retirement were luxuries enjoyed by only a select few – maybe a couple of tens of millions in Western countries. Today, the once-elusive dreams of home ownership and pensions have become a reality for several hundreds of millions of people. Homeownership rates went from 20-40 per cent in the first half of the former century to 50-80 per cent in the modern era. Retirement savings also increased in the postwar period, reflecting the longer life spans that came with the general improvement of living standards. Funded pensions and other insurance savings comprised 5-10 per cent of household portfolios around 1950, but this share increased to 20-40 per cent in the 2000s.

The most crucial equalisation resulted from expanded wealth ownership among ordinary citizens

History demonstrates that the significant wealth equalisation over the past century was primarily driven by a massive increase in homeownership and retirement savings. But what initiated this accumulation of assets by households? The most comprehensive evidence highlights the role of political changes and economic developments that explicitly included new groups in the productive market economy. Firstly, the 1910s and ’20s witnessed a broad wave of political democratisation, extending universal suffrage to the Western world. Following this regime shift, a series of reforms transformed the economic reality for the masses. Educational attainment was expanded, and higher education became accessible to broader segments of society. New labour laws improved workers’ rights, making workplaces safer and reducing working hours. These changes enhanced workers’ productivity and real incomes. Simultaneously, the financial system evolved by offering better services to this new constituency of potential customers, including cheaper loans, savings plans, mutual funds and other financial services.

Thus, the primary drivers behind the great wealth equalisation of the 20th century were not wars or the redistributive effects of capital taxation. While these factors had some impact, the most crucial equalisation resulted from expanded wealth ownership among ordinary citizens, particularly through homeownership and pension savings, and the institutional shifts that enabled the accumulation of these assets.

A general lesson from history is that wealth accumulation is a positive, welfare-enhancing force in free-market economies. It is closely linked to the growth of successful businesses, which leads to new jobs, higher incomes and more tax revenue for the public sector. Various historical, social and economic factors have contributed to the rise of wealth accumulation in the middle class, with homeownership and pension savings being the primary ones.

As a closing remark, it should be recognised that the story of wealth equalisation is not one of unmitigated success. There are still significant disparities in wealth within and among nations, generating instability and injustice. Over the past years, wealth concentration has increased in some countries, most notably in the US. The extent to which this is due to productive entrepreneurship generating products, jobs, incomes and taxes, or to forces that exclude groups from acquiring personal wealth causing tensions and erosive developments in society, is a question that needs to be studied more. However, at this point it is still vital to acknowledge the progress toward greater equality that has been made in our past and understand how it has happened. Only then can we be in a stronger position to lay the foundation for further advancements in our quest for a more just and prosperous world.

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Two decades of advancements in cold supply chain logistics for reducing food waste: a review with focus on the meat industry.

1. Introduction

Objective and scope of study.

What is the current state of the art on beef CSCL in terms of management, sustainability, network design, and the use of information technologies for red meat waste reduction?
To provide an overview of the current state of the art and to identify the gaps and contemporary challenges to red meat waste reduction;
To identify key research themes and their potential role and associated elements in mitigating red meat waste reduction, especially across the beef CSCL systems;
To pinpoint the directions in each theme that warrant further research advancement.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. literature retrieval and selection, 2.2. extracting the research themes, 3.1. the literature review identified themes and subjects, 3.2. the literature’s evolution and descriptive results, 3.3. management, 3.3.1. logistics management and chronological evolution, 3.3.2. management and regulations, 3.3.3. management and collaboration, 3.3.4. management and costs, 3.3.5. management and inventory, 3.3.6. management and decision-making, 3.3.7. management and risks, 3.3.8. management and waste reduction, 3.3.9. management and information, 3.3.10. management and cold chain deficiencies, 3.4. sustainability, 3.4.1. sustainability and closed-loop scs (clscs), 3.4.2. sustainability and business models, 3.4.3. sustainability and wastage hotspots, 3.4.4. sustainability and packing, 3.4.5. sustainability and information flow, 3.5. network design optimisation, 3.5.1. network design and decision levels, 3.5.2. network design and the location–inventory problem, 3.5.3. network design and routing-inventory problem, 3.5.4. network design and the location routing problem, 3.5.5. network design and the integrated location–inventory routing problem, 3.5.6. network design and sustainability, 3.5.7. network design and information flow, 3.6. information technologies, 3.6.1. it and meat sc transformation, 3.6.2. emerging information technologies and meat scs, technical instruments, technological systems, 4. discussion, 4.1. management, 4.2. sustainability, 4.3. network design, 4.4. information technology, 5. conclusions.

Management: ◦ Effective management practices are crucial for addressing FLW in beef CSCL systems. ◦ There is a notable transition from LM to FLM and SFLM, with the potential for emerging technologies to create an “Intelligent Sustainable Food Logistics Management” phase. ◦ Suboptimal management practices continue to contribute significantly to FLW, underscoring the need for enhanced strategies and adherence to regulations and standards.
Sustainability: ◦ Sustainability in beef CSCL involves addressing social, economic, and environmental benefits. ◦ Reducing FLW can lead to increased profits, improved customer satisfaction, public health, equity, and environmental conservation by minimising resource use and emissions. ◦ Comprehensive research integrating all sustainability dimensions is needed to fully understand and mitigate FLW. Current efforts often address only parts of sustainability. A more holistic approach is required to balance environmental, economic, and social dimensions effectively.
Network Design: ◦ Effective network design and optimisation are pivotal in reducing FLW within beef CSCL systems. ◦ There is a necessity for integrating all three levels of management decisions in the logistics network design process. Decision levels in network design must be considered to understand trade-offs among sustainability components in this process. ◦ Future research should focus on integrating management decisions and network design, CSCL uncertainties, sustainability dimensions, and advanced technologies to enhance efficiency and reduce waste in beef CSCL systems.
Information Technologies: ◦ Information technologies such as Digital Twins (DTs) and Blockchain (BC) play a significant role in improving efficiency and reducing FLW in beef CSCL. ◦ The integration of these technologies can enhance understanding of fluid dynamics, thermal exchange, and meat quality variations, optimising the cooling process and reducing energy usage. ◦ Challenges like data security and management efficiency need to be addressed to maximise the benefits of these technologies.

Author Contributions

Data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

Scholar, Ref.	Year	Subject	Objectives I	II	Methodology	Industry (Product)	Measures to Reduce FLW
Gunasekaran et al. [ ]	2008	Logistics management	To improve the responsiveness of SCs	To increase the competitiveness of SCs	Group Process and Analytical Hierarchy Process	Multi-industry	-
Dabbene et al. [ ]	2008	Food logistics management	To minimise logistic costs	To maintain food product quality	Stochastic optimisation	Fresh food	-
Lipinski et al. [ ]	2013	Food logistics management	To minimise the costs associated with food waste	To reduce food waste	Qualitative analysis	Food products	Proposing appropriate strategies
van der Vorst et al. [ ]	2011	Food logistics management	To improve the competitiveness level, maintaining the quality of products	To improve efficiency and reduce food waste levels	Qualitative analysis	Agrifood products	The development of a diagnostic instrument for quality-controlled logistics
Soysal et al. [ ]	2012	Sustainable logistics management	To enhance the level of sustainability and efficiency in food supply chains	To reduce FLW levels	Qualitative analysis	Food supply chains	The analysis of existing quantitative models, contributing to their development
Bettley and Burnley [ ]	2008	Sustainable logistics management (SLM)	To improving environmental and social sustainability	To reduce costs and food waste	Qualitative analysis	Multi-industry	application of a closed-loop supply chain concept to incorporate sustainability into operational strategies and practices
Zokaei and Simons, [ ]	2006	SML, Collaboration, Regulation, Cost, Inventory, Waste reduction, Information sharing,	To introduce the food value chain analysis (FVCA) methodology for improving consumer focus in the agri-food sector	To present how the FVCA method enabled practitioners to identify the misalignments of both product attributes and supply chain activities with consumer needs	Statistical analysis/FVCA	Red meat	Suggesting the application of FVCA can improve the overall efficiency and reduce the waste level
Cox et al. [ ]	2007	SML, Cost, Decision-making, Risks, Waste reduction, Sustainability	To demonstrate the proactive alignment of sourcing with marketing and branding strategies in the red meat industry	To showcase how this alignment can contribute to competitive advantage in the food industry	Qualitative	Beef and Red meat	Emphasising the role of the lean approach, identifying waste hotspots, and collaboration in reducing food loss and waste
Jie and Gengatharen, [ ]	2019	SML, Regulation, Collaboration, Cost, Inventory, Waste reduction, Info. Sharing, IT, Sustainability, Sco	To empirically investigate the adoption of supply chain management practices on small and medium enterprises in the Australian food retail sector	To analyse the structure of food and beverage distribution in the Australian retail market	Statistical analysis	Food/Beef Meat Industry	Adopting lean thinking and improving information sharing in the supply chains
Knoll et al. [ ]	2017	SML, Collaboration, Regulation, Cost, Inventory, Decision-making, Risks, Information sharing, Deficiencies, Network design	To characterise the supply chain structure	To identify its major fragilities	Qualitative	Beef meat	-
Schilling-Vacaflor, A., [ ]	2021	Regulation, Sustainability	To analyse the institutional design of supply chain regulations	To integrate human rights and environmental concerns into these regulations	Qualitative	Beef and Soy Industries	-
Knoll et al. [ ]	2018	Regulation, Collaboration, Cost, Risks, Deficiencies, Decision-making, Sustainability, Information sharing	To analyse the information flow within the Sino-Brazilian beef trade, considering the opportunities presented by the Chinese beef market and the vulnerabilities in the supply chain	To investigate the challenges and opportunities in the information exchange process between China and Brazil within the beef trade sector	Mixed method	Beef Industry	-
E-Fatima et al. [ ]	2022	Regulation, Risks, Safety, Collaboration, Business model, Packing, information sharing	To critically examine the potential barriers to the implementation and adoption of Robotic Process Automation in beef supply chains	To investigate the financial risks and barriers to the adoption of RPA in beef supply chains	Mixed method	Beef supply chain	-
Jedermann et al. [ ]	2014	Regulations and Food Safety	To reduce food loss and waste	To improve traceability	Qualitative analysis	Meat and Food products	Proposing appropriate strategies to improve quality monitoring
Kayikci et al. [ ]	2018	Regulations, Sustainability, Waste reduction	To minimise food waste by investigating the role of regulations	To improve sustainability, social and environmental benefits	Grey prediction method	Red meat	Proposing circular and central slaughterhouse model and emphasising efficiency of regulations based on circular economy comparing with the linear economy model
Storer et al. [ ]	2014	Regulation, Collaboration, Cost, Inventory, Decision-making, Risks, IT, Sustainability	To examine how forming strategic supply chain relationships and developing strategic supply chain capability influences beneficial supply chain outcomes	To understand the factors influencing the utilisation of industry-led innovation in the form of electronic business solutions	Mixed methods	Beef supply chain	-
Liljestrand, K., [ ]	2017	Collaboration, FLW, Information sharing	To analyse sustainability practices adopted in collaboration, including vertical collaboration in the food supply chain	To explore the role of collaboration in tackling food loss and waste	Qualitative analysis	Meat and Food products	Investigating how Food Policy can foster collaborations to reduce FLW
Mangla et al. [ ]	2021	Collaboration, food safety and traceability	To enhance food safety and traceability levels through collaboration lens	To examine traceability dimensions and decrease information hiding	Qualitative analysis	Meat and Food products	Offering a framework for collaboration role in reducing info hiding and FLW in the circular economy
Liljestrand, K. [ ]	2017	Collaboration, FLW, Information sharing	To investigate the role of logistics management and relevant solutions in reducing FLW	To explore the role of collaboration in food supply chains	Qualitative analysis	Meat and Food products	Examining the role of collaborative forecasting in reducing food waste
Esmizadeh et al. [ ]	2021	Cost and Network design	To investigate the relations among cost, freshness, travel time, and Hub facilities vs Distribution centres	To investigate the product perishability effect in the distribution phase under hierarchical hub network design	Deterministic optimisation	Meat and food products	-
Cristóbal et al. [ ]	2018	Cost, FLW and Sustainability	To consider the cost factor in the planning to reduce FLW	To develop a method to reduce costs and FLW environmental effects and improve the sustainability level	Mixed method	Meat and Food products	Proposing novel methods and programmes for cost effective and sustainable FLW management
Esmizadeh et al. [ ]	2021	Cost and Network design	To investigate the relations among cost, freshness, travel time, and Hub facilities vs Distribution centres	To investigate the product perishability effect in the distribution phase under hierarchical hub network design	Deterministic optimisation	Meat and food products	-
Faisal. M. N., [ ]	2015	Cost, Risks, Regulations, Deficiencies, Collaboration, Decision-making, IT, Information sharing	To identify variables that act as inhibitors to transparency in a red meat supply chain	To contribute to making the supply chain more transparent	Mixed method	Red meat	-
Shanoyan et al. [ ]	2019	Cost, Risks, Information sharing	To analyse the incentive structures at the producer–processor interface within the beef supply chain in Brazil	To assess the dynamics and effectiveness of incentive mechanisms between producers and processors in the Brazilian beef supply chain	Qualitative	Beef Industry	-
Nakandala et al. [ ]	2016	Cost, Sustainability	To minimise transportation costs and CO emissions	To maximise product freshness and quality	Stochastic optimisation	Meat and food products	-
Ge et al. [ ]	2022	Cost, Decision-making,	To develop an optimal network model for the beef supply chain in the Northeastern US	To optimize the operations within this supply chain	Mathematical modelling	Beef meat	-
Hsiao et al. [ ]	2017	Cost, Inventory, Network design	To maximise distribution efficiency and customer satisfaction	ZTo minimise the quality drop of perishable food products/meat	Deterministic optimisation	Meat products	-
Shanoyan et al. [ ]	2019	Cost, Risks, Information sharing	To analyse the incentive structures at the producer–processor interface within the beef supply chain in Brazil	To assess the dynamics and effectiveness of incentive mechanisms between producers and processors in the Brazilian beef supply chain	Qualitative	Beef Industry	-
Magalhães et al. [ ]	2020	Inventory and FW	To identify FLW causes in the beef supply chain in Brazil and explore the role of inventory management strategies and demand forecasting in FLW issue	To investigate their interconnections	Mixed method	Beef meat industry	Providing a theoretical basis to implement appropriate FLW mitigation strategies
Jedermann et al. [ ]	2014	Inventory and Food Safety	To reduce food loss and waste	To improve traceability	Qualitative analysis	Meat and Food products	Proposing appropriate strategies to improve quality monitoring
Meksavang et al. [ ]	2019	Inventory, Cost, Decision-making, Information sharing, Sustainability	To develop an extended picture fuzzy VIKOR approach for sustainable supplier management	To apply the developed approach in the beef industry for sustainable supplier management	Mixed methods	Beef meat	-
Herron et al. [ ]	2022	Inventory and Sustainability	To identify the minimum shelf life required to prevent food waste and develop FEFO models	To identify the risk of food products reaching the bacterial danger zone	Deterministic optimisation	Meat products	Building a decision-making model and incorporating quality and microbiological data
Rahbari et al. [ ]	2021	Decision-making and Network design	To minimise distribution cost, variable cost	To reduce inventory costs, the total cost	Deterministic optimisation	Red meat	-
Taylor D.H., [ ]	2006	Decision-making, Cost Risks, Inventory, Waste Reduction, Deficiencies, Sustainability, Env.	To examine the adoption and implementation of lean thinking in food supply chains, particularly in the UK pork sector	To assess the environmental and economic impact of lean practices in the agri-food supply chain	Qualitative	Red meat	Suggesting the combination of Value Chain Analysis and Lean principles
Erol and Saghaian, [ ]	2022	Risks, Cost, Regulation	To investigate the dynamics of price adjustment in the US beef sector during the COVID-19 pandemic	To analyse the impact of the pandemic on price adjustments within the US beef sector	Mixed method	Beef Industry	-
Galuchi et al. [ ]	2019	Risks, Regulations, Sustainability, Soc., Env.	To identify the main sources of reputational risks in Brazilian Amazon beef supply chains	To analyse the actions taken by slaughterhouses to manage these risks	Mixed method	Beef supply chain	Mitigating risks
Silvestre et al. [ ]	2018	Risks, Collaboration, Regulation, Management, Sustainability	To examine the challenges associated with sustainable supply chain management	To propose strategies for addressing identified challenges	Qualitative	Beef Industry	-
Bogataj et al. [ ]	2020	Risks, Cost, Sustainability, Inventory	To maximise the profit	To improve sustainability performance	Mixed method	Beef industry	Incorporating the remaining shelf life in the decision-making process
Nguyen et al. [ ]	2023	Risks, Waste reduction, Sustainability, Cost, Inventory	To improve the operational efficiency	To reduce carbon footprint and food waste	Statistical analysis	Beef industry	Identifying the root causes of waste and proposing a framework composed of autonomous agents to minimise waste
Amani and Sarkodie, [ ]	2022	Risks, Information technologies, Sustainability	To minimise overall cost and waste	To improve the sustainability performance	Stochastic optimisation	Meat products	Incorporating artificial intelligence in the management context
Klein et al. [ ]	2014	Risks, Information Technologies	To analyse the use of mobile technology for management and risk control	To identify drivers and barriers to mobile technology adoption in risk reduction	-	Beef meat	Introducing a framework that connects the challenges associated with the utilisation of mobile technology in SCM and risk control
Gholami-Zanjani et al. [ ]	2021	Risk, ND, Inventory, Wastage Hot Spots, Sustainability	To reduce the risk effect and improve the resiliency against disruptions	To minimise environmental implications	Stochastic optimisation	Meat products	-
Buisman et al. [ ]	2019	Waste reduction	To reduce food loss and waste at the retailer level	To improve food safety level and maximise the profit	Stochastic optimisation	Meat and Food products	Employing a dynamically adjustable expiration date strategy and discounting policy
Verghese et al. [ ]	2015	Waste reduction, Information Technologies and Sustainability	To reduce food waste in food supply chains and relevant costs	To improve the sustainability performance	Qualitative analysis	Meat and Food products	Applying of information technologies and improved packaging
Jedermann et al. [ ]	2014	Waste reduction	To reduce food loss and waste	To improve traceability	Qualitative analysis	Meat and Food products	Introducing some initiatives and waste reduction action plans
Mohebi and Marquez, [ ]	2015	Waste reduction and Information Technologies	To improve the customer satisfaction and the quality of food products	To reduce food waste and loss	Qualitative analysis	Meat products	Proposing strategies and technologies for meat quality monitoring during the transport and storage phases
Kowalski et al. [ ]	2021	Waste reduction and Information Technologies	To reduce food waste	To create a zero-waste solution for handling dangerous meat waste	Mixed method	Meat products	Recovering meat waste and transforming it into raw, useful materials
Beheshti et al. [ ]	2022	Waste reduction, Network design, and Information Technologies	To reduce food waste by optimising the initial rental capacity and pre-equipped capacity required for the maximisation of profit	To optimise CLSCs and to improve cooperation level among supply chain stakeholders	Stochastic optimisation	Meat products	Applying optimisation across reverse logistics and closed-loop supply chains
Albrecht et al. [ ]	2020	Waste reduction, IT, Decision-making, Inventory	To examine the effectiveness of sourcing strategy in reducing food loss and waste and product quality	To validate the applicability of the TTI monitoring system for meat products	Mixed method	Meat products	Applying of new information technologies in order to monitor the quality of products
Eriksson et al. [ ]	2014	Waste reduction and Sustainability	To compare the wastage of organic and conventional meats	To compare the wastage of organic and conventional food products	Mixed method	Meat and perishable food products	Providing hints to reduce the amount of food loss and waste based on research findings
Accorsi et al. [ ]	2019	Waste reduction, Decision support, Sustainability (Eco., Soc., Env.)	To address sustainability and environmental concerns related to meat production and distribution	To maximise the profit	Deterministic optimisation	Beef and meat products	Providing a decision-support model for the optimal allocation flows across the supply chain and a system of valorisation for the network
Jo et al. [ ]	2015	Information technologies, Sustainability	To reduce food loss and waste levels, improve food traceability and sustainability	To minimise CO emissions	Mixed method	Beef meat products	Incorporating blockchain technology
Ersoy et al. [ ]	2022	Information technologies, Sustainability, Food loss and Waste	To improve collaboration among multi-tier suppliers through knowledge transfer and to provide green growth in the industry	To improve traceability in the circular economy context through information technology innovations	Statistical analysis	Meat products	Suggesting a validated conceptual framework expressing the role of information technologies in information sharing
Kler et al. [ ]	2022	Information technologies, Sustainability	To minimise transport CO emission level and food waste level	To improve traceability and demand monitoring levels	Data Analytics	Meat products	Employing information technologies (IoT) and utilising data analytics for optimising the performance
Singh et al. [ ]	2018	IT, Information sharing, Waste reduction, Decision-making, and Packing	To explore the application of social media data analytics in enhancing supply chain management within the food industry	To investigate how social media data analytics can be utilised to improve decision-making processes and operational efficiency	Mixed method	Beef and food supply chain	Highlighting the role of content analysis of Twitter data obtained from beef supply chains and retailers
Martinez et al. [ ]	2007	Deficiencies, Regulation, Cost, Inventory	To improve food safety	To lower regulatory cost	Statistical analysis	Meat and food products	-
Kayikci et al. [ ]	2018	Deficiencies, Regulations, Waste reduction, Sustainability	To minimise food waste by investigating the role of regulations	To improve sustainability, social and environmental benefits	Grey prediction method	Red meat	Proposing circular and central slaughterhouse model and emphasising efficiency of regulations based on circular economy comparing with the linear economy model
Nychas et al. [ ]	2008	Deficiencies, Waste reduction, Information Technologies	To characterise the microbial spoilage of meat samples during distribution	To assess the factors contributing to meat spoilage	Mixed method	Meat products	Identifying and discussing factors contributing to meat spoilage
Sander et al. [ ]	2018	Deficiencies, Risks, Information Technologies	To investigate meat traceability by outlining the different aspects of transparency	To understand the perspectives of various stakeholders regarding BCT	Qualitative analysis	Meat products	-

Scholar, Ref.	Year	Subject	Objectives I	II	Methodology	Industry (Product)	Measures to Reduce FLW
Mahbubi and Uchiyama, [ ]	2020	Eco, Soc., Evn., Management, Collaboration, IT, Information sharing	To identify the Indonesian halal beef supply chain’s basic system	To assess the sustainability level in the Indonesian halal beef supply chain	Life cycle assessment	Beef Industry	Identifying waste in different actors’ sections
Bragaglio et al. [ ]	2018	Env., Management, Inventory, Decision-making	To assess and compare the environmental impacts of different beef production systems in Italy	To provide a comprehensive analysis of the environmental implications	Life cycle assessment	Beef Industry	-
Zeidan et al. [ ]	2020	Env., Management, Collaboration, Cost	To develop an existence inductive theory	To study coordination failures in sustainable beef production	Qualitative	Beef Industry	-
Santos and Costa, [ ]	2018	Env., Packing, Management, Cost, Regulations	To assess the role of large slaughterhouses in promoting sustainable intensification of cattle ranching in the Amazon and the Cerrado	To evaluate the environmental and social impacts of large slaughterhouses	Statistical Analysis	Beef Industry	-
E-Fatima et al. [ ]	2023	Business model, Packing, Eco., Socio., Env., Management, Waste reduction	To investigate the financial risks and barriers in the adoption of robotic process automation (RPA) in the beef supply chains	To examine the potential influence of RPA on sustainability in the beef industry	Simulation	Beef Industry	Adopting Robotic Process Automation
Huerta et al. [ ]	2015	Env., Packing, Waste Management, Waste	To assess the environmental impact of beef production in Mexico	To conduct a life cycle assessment of the beef production process	Life cycle assessment	Beef Industry	Suggesting utilising generated organic waste to produce usable energy
Cox et al. [ ]	2007	Env., Business model, Packing, Management, Waste reduction, Information sharing, Cost, Risk	To explore the creation of sustainable strategies within red meat supply chains	To investigate the development of sustainable practices and strategies in the context of red meat supply chains	Qualitative	Red meat Industry	Proposing the adoption of lean strategies in the red meat supply chain industry
Teresa et al. [ ]	2018	Eco., Env., Business model, Management, Deficiencies, Regulation, Collaboration, Cost	To provide current perspectives on cooperation among Irish beef farmers	To explore the future prospects of cooperation within the context of new producer organisation legislation	Qualitative	Beef Industry	Highlighting the role of legislation in the joint management of waste
Kyayesimira et al. [ ]	2019	Eco., Waste hotspots, Management, Regulations	To identify and analyse the causes of losses at various post-harvest handling points along the beef value chain in Uganda	To estimate the economic losses incurred due to those factors	Statistical analysis	Beef Industry	Providing insights into potential improvements in the beef value chain management
Ranaei et al. [ ]	2021	Env., Eco., Wastage hotspots Management, deficiencies, Waste reduction, Regulation, Collaboration	To identify the causes of meat waste and meat value chain losses in Iran	To propose solutions to reduce meat value chain losses	Qualitative	Meat/Red Meat Industry	Identifying the causes and hotspots of wastage points and proposing solutions
Wiedemann et al. [ ]	2015	Env., Eco., Waste hotspots, Manag., Inventory	To assess the environmental impacts and resource use associated with meat export	To determine the environmental footprint	Life Cycle Assessment	Red meat Industry	Providing insights into potential improvements
Pinto et al. [ ]	2022	Sustainability (Eco., Evo., Soc.) Management	To explore the sustainable management and utilisation of animal by-products and food waste in the meat industry	To analyse the food loss and waste valorisation of animal by-products	Mixed method	Meat products and industry	Employing the CE concept in the context of the meat supply chain suggested the development of effective integrated logistics for wasted product collection
Chen et al. [ ]	2021	Sustainability (Env.) and Management	To identify existing similarities among animal-based supply chains	To measure the reduction effect of interventions applied	Mixed method	Beef meat and food products	Applying the food waste reduction scenario known to be effective in emission reduction
Martínez and Poveda, [ ]	2022	Sustainability (Env.), Management	To minimise environmental impacts by exploring refrigeration system characteristics	To develop refrigeration systems-based policies for improving food quality	Mixed method	Meat and food products	-
Peters et al. [ ]	2010	Sustainability (Env.), Wastage hotspots	To assess the environmental impacts of red meat in a lifecycle scope	To compare the findings with similar cases across the world	Life Cycle Impact Assessment	Beef meat and red meat	-
Soysal et al. [ ]	2014	Sustainability (Env.), Wastage hotspots, Network Design	To minimise inventory and transportation costs	To minimise CO emissions	Deterministic optimisation	Beef meat	-
Mohebalizadehgashti et al. [ ]	2020	Sustainability (Env.), Wastage hotspots, Network Design	To maximise facility capacity, minimise total cost	To minimise CO emissions	Deterministic optimisation	Meat products	-
Fattahi et al. [ ]	2013	Sustainability (Env.), Packing, Management	To develop a model for measuring the performance of meat SC	To analyse the operational efficiency of meat SC	Mixed method	Meat products	-
Florindo et al. [ ]	2018	Sustainability (Env.), Wastage hotspots, Management	To reduce carbon footprint	To evaluate performance	Mixed method	Beef meat	-
Diaz et al. [ ]	2021	Sustainability (Env.), Wastage hotspots	To conduct a lifecycle-based study to find the impact of energy efficiency measures	To evaluate environmental impacts and to optimise the energy performance	Life Cycle Impact Assessment	Beef meat	Reconversing of Energy from Food Waste through Anaerobic Processes
Schmidt et al. [ ]	2022	Sustainability (Env.), Wastage hotspots, Management, Information Technologies	To optimise the supply chain by considering food traceability, economic, and environmental issues	To reduce the impact and cost of recalls in case of food safety issues	Deterministic optimisation	Meat products	-
Mohammed and Wang, [ ]	2017	Sustainability (Eco.) Management, Decision-making, Network design	To minimise total cost, To maximise delivery rate	To minimise CO emissions and distribution time	Stochastic optimisation	Meat products	-
Asem-Hiablie et al. [ ]	2019	Sustainability (Env.), energy consumption, greenhouse gas	To quantify the sustainability impacts associated with beef products	To identify opportunities for reducing its environmental impacts	Life cycle assessment	Beef industry	-
Bottani et al. [ ]	2019	Sustainability (Eco., and Env.), Packaging, Waste management	To conduct an economic assessment of various reverse logistics scenarios for food waste recovery	To perform an environmental assessment for them	Life cycle assessment	Meat and food industry	Examining and employing different reverse logistics scenarios
Kayikci et al. [ ]	2018	Sustainability (Eco., Soc., Env.) Management, Regulations, Waste reduction	To minimise food waste by investigating the role of regulations	To improve sustainability, social and environmental benefits	Grey prediction method	Red meat	Proposing circular and central slaughterhouse model and emphasising efficiency of regulations based on circular economy comparing with the linear economy model
Tsakiridis et al. [ ]	2020	Sustainability (Env.), Information technologies	To compare the economic and environmental impact of aquatic and livestock products	To employ environmental impacts into the Bio-Economy model	Life cycle assessment	Beef and meat products	-
Jo et al. [ ]	2015	Sustainability (Eco. and Env.), Management, Cost, Food Safety, Risks, Information Technologies	To reduce food loss and waste levels, improve food traceability and sustainability	To minimise CO emissions	Mixed method	Beef meat products	Incorporating blockchain technology
Jeswani et al. [ ]	2021	Sustainability (Env.), Waste management	To assess the extent of food waste generation in the UK	To evaluate its environmental impacts	Life cycle assessment	Meat products	Quantifying the extent of FW and impact assessment
Accorsi et al. [ ]	2020	Sustainability (Eco. and Env.), Waste Management, Decision-making, Network design (LIP)	To reduce waste and enhance sustainability performance	To assess the economic and environmental implications of the proposed FSC	Deterministic optimisation	Meat and food industry	Designing a closed-loop packaging network
Chen et al. [ ]	2021	Sustainability (Env.) and Waste Management	To identify the environmental commonality among selected FSCs	To measure the reduction effect of novel interventions for market characteristics	Life cycle assessment	Beef meat and food products	Confirming the efficiency of food waste management and reduction scenario
Sgarbossa et al. [ ]	2017	Sustainability (Eco., Evo., Soc.) Network design	To develop a sustainable model for CLSC	To incorporate all three dimensions of sustainability	Deterministic optimisation	Meat products	Converting food waste into an output of a new supply chain
Zhang et al. [ ]	2022	Sustainability (Eco. and Env.), Packaging, Network design	To maximise total profit	To minimise environmental impact, carbon emissions	Stochastic optimisation	Meat and food products	Using Returnable transport items instead of one-way packaging
Irani and Sharif., [ ]	2016	Sustainability (Soc.) Management, IT	To explore sustainable food security futures	To provide perspectives on FW and IT across the food supply chain	Qualitative analysis	Meat and food products	Discussing potential strategies for waste reduction
Martindale et al. [ ]	2020	Sustainability (Eco. and Env.), Management, food safety, IT (BCT)	To develop CE theory application in FSCs by employing a large geographical database	To test the data platforms for improving sustainability	Mixed method	Meat and food products	-
Mundler, and Laughrea, [ ]	2016	Sustainability (Eco., Env., Soc.)	To evaluate short food supply chains’ contributions to the territorial development	To characterise their economic, social, and environmental benefits	Mixed method	Meat and food products	-
Vittersø et al. [ ]	2019	Sustainability (Eco., Env., Soc.)	To explore the contributions of short food supply chains to sustainability	To understand its impact on all sustainability dimensions	Mixed method	Meat and food products	-
Bernardi and Tirabeni, [ ]	2018	Sustainability (Eco., Env., Soc.)	To explore alternative food networks as sustainable business models	To explore the potentiality of the sustainable business model proposed	Mixed method	Meat and food products	Emphasising the role of accurate demand forecast
Bonou et al. [ ]	2020	Sustainability (Env.)	To evaluate the environmental impact of using six different cooling technologies	To conduct a comparative study of pork supply chain efficiency	Life cycle assessment	Pork products	-
Apaiah et al. [ ]	2006	Sustainability (Env.), Energy consumption	To examine and measure the environmental sustainability of food supply chains using exergy analysis	To identify improvement areas to diminish their environmental implications	Exergy analysis	Meat products	-
Peters et al. [ ]	2010	Sustainability (Env.), energy consumption, greenhouse gas	To assess greenhouse gas emissions and energy use levels of red meat products in Australia	To compare its environmental impacts with other countries	Life cycle assessment	Red meat products	-
Farooque et al. [ ]	2019	Sustainability (Env., and Eco.) Management, Regulation, Collaboration	To identify barriers to employing the circular economy concept in food supply chains	To analyse the relationship of identified barriers	Mixed method	Food products	Employing the CE concept in the context of the food supply chain
Kaipia et al. [ ]	2013	Sustainability (Eco. and Env.) Management, Inventory, Information Technologies	To improve sustainability performance via information sharing	To reduce FLW level	Qualitative analysis	Food products	Incorporating demand and shelf-life data information sharing effect
Majewski et al. [ ]	2020	Sustainability (Env.) and Waste management	To determine the environmental impact of short and longfood supply chains	To compare the environmental sustainability of short and long-food supply chains	Life cycle assessment	Food products	-
Rijpkema et al. [ ]	2014	Sustainability (Eco. and Env.) Management, Waste reduction, Information Technologies	To create effective sourcing strategies for supply chains dealing with perishable products	To provide a method to reduce food waste and loss amounts	Simulation model	Food products	Proposing effective sourcing strategies

Scholar, Ref.	Year	Modelling Stages: Single or Multi	Solving Approach	Objectives I	II/III	Model Type	Supply Chain Industry (Product)	Main Attributes
Domingues Zucchi et al. [ ]	2011	M	Metaheuristic/GA and CPLEX	To minimise the cost of facility installation	To minimise costs for sea and road transportation	MIP	Beef meat	LP
Soysal et al. [ ]	2014	S	ε-constraint method	To minimise inventory and transportation cost	To minimise CO emissions	LP	Beef meat	PIAP
Rahbari et al. [ ]	2021	M	GAMS	To minimise total cost	To minimise inventory, transport, storage costs	MIP	Red meat	PLIRP
Rahbari et al. [ ]	2020	S	GAMS	To minimise total cost		MIP	Red meat	PLIRP
Neves-Moreira et al. [ ]	2019	S	Metaheuristic	To minimise routing cost	To minimise inventory holding cost	MIP	Meat	PRP
Mohammadi et al. [ ]	2023	S	Pre-emptive fuzzy goal programming	To maximise total profit	To minimise adverse environmental impacts	MINLP	Meat/Perishable food products	LIP
Mohebalizadehgashti et al. [ ]	2020	S	ε-constraint method	To maximise facility capacity, minimise total cost	To minimise CO emissions	MILP	Meat	LAP
Mohammed and Wang, [ ]	2017a	S	LINGO	To minimise total cost	To minimise number of vehicles/delivery time	MOPP	Meat	LRP
Mohammed and Wang, [ ]	2017b	S	LINGO	To minimise otal cost, to maximise delivery rate	To minimise CO emissions and distribution time	FMOP	Meat	LRP
Gholami Zanjani et al. [ ]	2021	M	Metaheuristic	To improve the resilience and sustainability	To minimise inventory holding cost	MP	Meat	IP
Tarantilis and Kiranoudis, [ ]	2002	S	Metaheuristic	To minimise total cost	To maximise the efficiency of distribution	OMDVRP	Meat	LRP
Dorcheh and Rahbari, [ ]	2023	M	GAMS	To minimise total cost	To minimise CO emissions	MP	Meat/Poultry	IRP
Al Theeb et al. [ ]	2020	M	Heuristic CPLEX	To minimise total cost, holding costs, and penalty cost	To maximise the efficiency of transport and distribution phase	MILP	Meat/Perishable food products	IRP
Moreno et al. [ ]	2020	S	Metaheuristic/hybrid approach	To maximise the profit	To minimise the costs, delivery times	MIP	Meat	LRP
Javanmard et al. [ ]	2014	S	Metaheuristic/Imperialist competitive algorithm	To minimise inventory holding cost	To minimise total cost	NS	Food and Meat	IRP
Ge et al. [ ]	2022	S	Heuristic algorithm	To develop an optimal network model for the beef supply chain in the Northeastern US	To optimize the operations within this supply chain	MILP	Beef meat	LRP
Hsiao et al. [ ]	2017	S	Metaheuristic/GA	To maximise distribution efficiency and customer satisfaction	To minimise the quality drop of perishable food products/meat	MILP *	Meat/Perishable food products	LRP
Govindan et al. [ ]	2014	M	Metaheuristic/MHPV	To minimise carbon footprint	To minimise of the cost of greenhouse gas emissions	MOMIP *	Perishable food products	LRP
Zhang et al. [ ]	2003	S	Metaheuristic	To minimise cost, food safety risks	To maximise the distribution efficiency	MP *	Perishable food products	LRP
Wang and Ying, [ ]	2012	S	Heuristic, Lagrange slack algorithm	To maximise the delivery efficiency	To minimise the total costs	MINLP *	Perishable food products	LRP
Liu et al. [ ]	2021	S	YALMIP toolbox	To minimise cost and carbon emission	To maximise product freshness	MP/MINLP	Perishable food products	LIRP
Dia et al. [ ]	2018	S	Metaheuristic/GA	To minimise total cost	To reduce greenhouse gas emissions/maximise facility capacity	MINLP	Perishable food products	LIP
Saragih et al. [ ]	2019	S	Simulated annealing	To fix warehouse cost	To minimise nventory cost, holding cost, and total cost	MINLP	Food products	LIRP
Biuki et al. [ ]	2020	M	GA and PSO	To incorporate the three dimensions of sustainability	To minimise total cost, maximise facility capacity	MIP *	Perishable products	LIRP
Hiassat et al. [ ]	2017	S	Genetic algorithm	To implement facility and inventory storage cost	To minimise routing cost	MIP	Perishable products	LIRP
Le et al. [ ]	2013	S	Heuristic- Column generation	To minimise transport cost	To minimise inventory cost	MP	Perishable products	IRP
Wang et al. [ ]	2016	S	Two-phase Heuristic and Genetic algorithm	To minimise total cost	To maximise the freshness of product quality	MP	Perishable food products	RP
Rafie-Majd et al. [ ]	2018	S	Lagrangian relaxation/GAMS	To minimise total cost	To minimise product wastage	MINLP *	Perishable products	LIRP

Scholar, Ref.	Year	Subject	Objectives I	II	Methodology	Industry (Product)	Measures to Reduce FLW
Singh et al. [ ]	2018	Information technologies, Sustainability, Regulations, Management	To measure greenhouse emission levels and select green suppliers with top-quality products	To reduce carbon footprint and environmental implications	Mixed method	Beef supply chain	-
Singh et al. [ ]	2015	Information technologies, Sus. (Env.), Inventory, Collaboration, Management	To reduce carbon footprint and carbon emissions	To propose an integrated system for beef supply chain via the application of IT	Simulation	Beef supply chain	-
Juan et al. [ ]	2014	Information technologies, Management, Inventory, Collaboration, Management	To explore the role of supply chain practices, strategic alliance, customer focus, and information sharing on food quality	To explore the role of lean system and cooperation, trust, commitment, and information quality on food quality	Statistical analysis	Beef supply chain	By application of IT and Lean system strategy
Zhang et al. [ ]	2020	Information technologies, Management, Inventory, Food quality and safety	To develop a performance-driven conceptual framework regarding product quality information in supply chains	To enhance the understanding of the impact of product quality information on performance	Statistical analysis	Red meat supply chain	-
Cao et al. [ ]	2021	IT, Blockchain, Management, Regulation, Collaboration, Risks, Cost, Waste reduction	To enhance consumer trust in the beef supply chain traceability through the implementation of a blockchain-based human–machine reconciliation mechanism	To investigate the role of blockchain technology in improving transparency and trust within the beef supply chain	Mixed method	Beef products	By applying new information technologies
Kassahun et al. [ ]	2016	IT and ICTs	To provide a systematic approach for designing and implementing chain-wide transparency systems	To design and implement a transparency system/software for beef supply chains	Simulation	Beef meat Industry	By improving the traceability
Ribeiro et al. [ ]	2011	IT and ICTs	To present and discuss the application of RFID technology in Brazilian harvest facilities	To analyse the benefits and challenges of implementing RFID	Qualitative	Beef Industry	-
Jo et al. [ ]	2015	IT (BCT) Sustainability (Eco. and Env.), Management, Cost, Food safety, Risks	To reduce food loss and waste levels, improve food traceability and sustainability	To minimise CO emissions	Mixed method	Beef meat products	By incorporating blockchain technology
Rejeb, A., [ ]	2018	IT (IoT, BCT), Management, risks, food safety	To propose a traceability system for the Halal meat supply chain	To mitigate the centralised, opaque issues and the lack of transparency in traceability systems	Mixed method	Beef meat and meat products	-
Cao et al. [ ]	2022	IT and blockchain, Management, Collaboration, Risk, Cost, Sustainability	To propose a blockchain-based multisignature approach for supply chain governance	To present a specific use case from the Australian beef industry	A novel blockchain-based multi-signature approach	Beef Industry	-
Kuffi et al. [ ]	2016	Digital 3D geometry scanning	To develop a CFD model to predict the changes in temperature and pH distribution of a beef carcass during chilling	To improve the performance of industrial cooling of large beef carcasses	Simulations	Beef meat products	-
Powell et al. [ ]	2022	Information technologies, (IoT and BCT)	To examine the link between IoT and BCT in FSC for traceability improvement	To propose solutions for data integrity and trust in the BCT and IoT-enabled food SCs	Mixed method	Beef meat products	-
Jedermann et al. [ ]	2014	Management, Regulations and Food Safety, FW, Information sharing, RFID	To reduce food loss and waste	To improve traceability	Qualitative analysis	Meat and Food products	By proposing appropriate strategies to improve quality monitoring
Liljestrand, K., [ ]	2017	Collaboration, FLW, Information sharing	To analyse sustainability practices adopted in collaboration, including vertical collaboration in the food supply chain	To explore the role of collaboration in tackling food loss and waste	Qualitative analysis	Meat and Food products	By investigating how Food Policy can foster collaborations to reduce FLW
Liljestrand, K., [ ]	2017	Collaboration, FLW, Information sharing	To analyse sustainability practices adopted in collaboration, including vertical collaboration in the food supply chain	To explore the role of collaboration in tackling food loss and waste	Qualitative analysis	Meat and Food products	By investigating how Food Policy can foster collaborations to reduce FLW
Harvey, J. et al. [ ]	2020	IT and ICTs, Sustainability (Env. and Sco.), waste reduction, Management, decision-making	To conduct social network analysis of food sharing, redistribution, and waste reduction	To reduce food waste via information sharing and IT application	Mixed method	Food products	By examining the potential of social media applications in reducing food waste through sharing and redistribution
Rijpkema et al. [ ]	2014	IT (Sharing), Sustainability Management, Waste reduction	To create effective sourcing strategies for SCs dealing with perishable products	To provide a method to reduce food waste and loss amounts	Simulation model	Food products	By proposing effective sourcing strategies
Wu, and Hsiao., [ ]	2021	Information technologies, Management, Inventory, Food quality and safety, Risks	To identify and evaluate high-risk factors	To mitigate risks and food safety accidents	Mixed method	Food supply chain	By reducing food quality and safety risks and employing improvement plans
Kaipia et al. [ ]	2013	IT (Sharing), Sustainability (Eco. and Env.) Management, Inventory	To improve sustainability performance via information sharing	To reduce FLW level	Qualitative analysis	Food products	By incorporating demand and shelf-life data information sharing effect
Mishra, N., and Singh, A., [ ]	2018	IT and ICTs, Sustainability (Env.), waste reduction, Management, decision-making	To utilise Twitter data for waste minimisation in the beef supply chain	To contribute to the reduction in food waste	Mixed method	Food products	By offering insights into potential strategies for reducing food waste via social media and IT
Parashar et al. [ ]	2020	Information sharing (IT), Sustainability (Env.), FW Management (regulation, inventory, risks)	To model the enablers of the food supply chain and improve its sustainability performance	To address the reducing carbon footprints in the food supply chains	Mixed method	Food products	By facilitating the strategic decision-making regarding reducing food waste
Tseng et al. [ ]	2022	Regulations, Sustainability, Information technologies, (IoT and BCT)	To conduct a data-driven comparison of halal and non-halal sustainable food supply chains	To explore the role of regulations and standards in ensuring the compliance of food products with Halal requirements and FW reduction	Mixed method	Food products	By highlighting the role of legislation in reducing food waste and promoting sustainable food management
Mejjaouli, and Babiceanu, [ ]	2018	Information technologies (RFID-WSN), Management, Decision-making	To optimise logistics decisions based on actual transportation conditions and delivery locations	To develop a logistics decision model via an IT application	Stochastic optimisation	Food products	-
Wu et al. [ ]	2019	IT (Information exchange), Sustainability (Eco., and Env.)	To analyse the trade-offs between maintaining fruit quality and reducing environmental impacts	To combine virtual cold chains with life cycle assessment to provide a holistic approach for evaluating the environmental trade-offs	Mixed method	Food/fruit products	By suggesting a more sustainability-driven cold chain scenario

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Davoudi, S.; Stasinopoulos, P.; Shiwakoti, N. Two Decades of Advancements in Cold Supply Chain Logistics for Reducing Food Waste: A Review with Focus on the Meat Industry. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 6986. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166986

Davoudi S, Stasinopoulos P, Shiwakoti N. Two Decades of Advancements in Cold Supply Chain Logistics for Reducing Food Waste: A Review with Focus on the Meat Industry. Sustainability . 2024; 16(16):6986. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166986

Davoudi, Sina, Peter Stasinopoulos, and Nirajan Shiwakoti. 2024. "Two Decades of Advancements in Cold Supply Chain Logistics for Reducing Food Waste: A Review with Focus on the Meat Industry" Sustainability 16, no. 16: 6986. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166986

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Saudi wealth fund brings era of easy money to an end

A poster promoting Vision 2030 shows Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman on a building in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Photo / Tamir Kalifa, The New York Times

For much of the past decade, Saudi Arabia has been a major draw for dealmakers, bankers and asset managers seeking capital as its ambitious sovereign wealth fund went on a multibillion-dollar global spending spree.

But as the kingdom reassesses its priorities and the $925 billion (NZ$1.5 trillion) Public Investment Fund shifts focus to huge domestic commitments, the era of Saudi Arabia being perceived as a source of easy money is drawing to a close.

“It is ending,” said a senior Dubai-based investment banker. “People are realising it.”

Fund managers, bankers and companies that sought to raise capital in the kingdom are already feeling the effects of the shift.

Money managers say Saudi officials have put many more conditions on mandates, often demanding the hiring of local employees and at least some use of funding for investment in domestic companies and projects.

Others are being told that for Riyadh to commit new funds, it wants to see reinvestment in the kingdom, bankers said.

“It is becoming more of a theme,” an insider at the wealth fund explained.

BlackRock, the US asset manager, did secure $5b from the PIF to anchor a new investment firm in Riyadh, which it announced in April. But its mandate is focused primarily on developing the kingdom’s capital markets.

The PIF said in a statement to the Financial Times that it had a “robust investment process”, allowing it “to choose partners and advisers who are best suited for each mandate we pursue”.

“Investments made by PIF go through a process of multiple committees and are focused on its key sectors, in accordance with the fund’s mandate and strategy,” it said.

Companies are also no longer beating a path to Riyadh’s door in the hunt for cash at the pace they once were, bankers say.

“Client interest has reduced materially, partly because we are screening more carefully, partly because there’s not been a tremendous amount of success from these efforts and roadshows,” said the Dubai-based banker. “People realise it’s not just about showing up and expecting a cheque.”

It is a marked contrast to the early years of the PIF’s dramatic transformation from a sleeping state holding company with about $150b in assets under management in 2015 into one of the world’s most active and ambitious sovereign funds.

The Public Investment Fund has splashed funds on ventures including LIV Golf. Photo / Getty Images

The overhaul was driven by Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, who took over as the fund’s chair in 2015, giving it the task of steering Riyadh’s trillion-dollar plans to diversify the economy and project the kingdom on to the global stage.

As it sought to rapidly build up its foreign exposure from virtually zero to its target of 24% of its portfolio, it made waves with a string of high-profile deals, including pumping $45b into SoftBank’s Vision Fund in 2016 and $20b into a Blackstone infrastructure fund the following year.

In the years since, it has splashed the cash in a diverse range of sectors from electric-car maker Lucid to its controversial LIV Golf venture, a cruise liner group, mining, sports assets and gaming companies.

It also poured tens of billions into US and European equity markets and injected $2b into a private equity venture set up by Donald Trump’s son-in-law, Jared Kushner.

The frenzy of activity coincided with tightening liquidity in other parts of the world, marking out Saudi Arabia and other oil-rich Gulf states as go-to sources for funding.

That sentiment grew after Russia’s invasion of Ukraine sent energy prices to multiyear highs, creating a boom in the Gulf and helping Saudi Arabia post a budget surplus in 2022 — its first in almost a decade.

But since then, the kingdom has slashed oil production in a bid to stabilise softening crude prices. That has hit government revenues and returned the budget to a deficit with Riyadh facing massive financial commitments to fund development plans. Deals have also fallen through, bankers say.

“For the last eight years, Saudi Arabia has gone out to the rest of the world with an open hand of money. Now the fist is clenching and pulling back to the country,” said a London-based investment banker. “It’s part of the maturing strategy. They could not have gone on like this forever.”

According to filings at the US Securities and Exchange Commission, the PIF’s traded stocks in the US fell from about $35b at the end of 2023 to $20.5b on March 31, before stabilising in the second quarter at $20.6b.

The PIF sold down its stake in BlackRock, and disposed of its holdings in Carnival, the cruise liner company, and entertainment group Live Nation.

Saudi officials say the kingdom’s ambitions have not changed and there is still significant activity taking place with work continuing on a string of megaprojects. But finance minister Mohammed al-Jadaan told a conference in April that Riyadh would “adjust” as required.

“We’ll extend some of the projects, we’ll downscale some projects, we’ll accelerate some projects,” he said.

An executive at a US-based asset manager added that Prince Mohammed was focused on building infrastructure.

“Saudi has shifted meaningfully to domestic growth projects,” the executive said. “They have a bold ambition of what they want to become.”

Another London-based banker said that with the financing outlook “not as comfortable as they want it to be, they’ve got to make some difficult choices”.

“That’s sensible and they are being slightly more mature, they are not going for broke. But it means it’s less lucrative for bankers,” he said.

“The other aspect is the Saudis are sick to the teeth of being treated just as a cash cow, and they are extremely suspicious of fee chasers. They want people to put skin in the game.”

He added that the shift in pace was a “cyclical issue” in line with falling oil revenues, saying the longer-term attraction of Saudi Arabia is “still pretty strong because they have a lot of catching up to do from a development perspective”.

The PIF insider said the fund was focusing more on strategic investments in contrast to the early years of its transformation when it was “looking to deploy money quickly in certain areas”.

“There is a pause in terms of spending, definitely global investments are not going to be there in a major way over the next two to three years,” said a Saudi executive. There would be exceptions, he explained, particularly in areas deemed to add value to the kingdom, such as manufacturing, artificial intelligence and technology.

“They are verbalising to banks it’s a very discrete moment,” the executive said.

Spending is continuing at home, with the PIF having a goal of investing at least $40b a year in the kingdom as it oversees a series of megaprojects while developing new industries, including tourism, sports, mining and manufacturing.

Riyadh also has to prepare as the host of a string of international events, including the football Asian Cup in 2027, the Asian Winter Games in 2029 and Expo 2030. In addition, it is the sole bidder for the 2034 Fifa World Cup .

Bankers added that the PIF’s subsidiaries — including new airline Riyadh Air, gaming entity Savvy and mining company Ma’aden — are doing much of the investing themselves as they seek to meet their own targets.

“There’s a lot of activity in the PIF’s portfolio companies, not at the PIF level,” said the Dubai-based banker.

He added that bankers’ “wallets” were going to shift more from investment deals to financing as the government and the PIF raised debt — Riyadh has already raised about $37b this year.

“It’s not necessarily a change of strategy, it’s an evolution,” he said.

Written by: Andrew England and Chloe Cornish in Dubai and Brooke Masters in New York. Additional reporting by Eric Platt in New York.

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5 Things the Wealthy Never Waste Money On, According To Experts

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It can be difficult to recognize when you’re in the presence of a truly wealthy person. Contrary to stereotypes surrounding the uber-rich, wealthy individuals are much more frugal than frivolous when it comes to their money management. Often, the credo “buy it for life” plays a big role in determining how they spend their money and following that philosophy means putting their money where there’s a return on investment.

Take a look at the following five things the wealthy won’t waste their money on .

James H. Lee, founder at StratFI , told GOBankingRates he spent over a decade working at a multifamily office for high-net-worth individuals (HNWI).

According to Lee, his wealthy clients only took out car loans if they could get 0% financing. Otherwise, they pay in cash which Lee said provided an immediate return on investment.

In-Store Financing

How many times have you been out shopping and seen offers to sign up for store credit cards or pay using buy now pay later (BNPL) options? As tempting as it may sound, keep walking. Grant Gallagher, AVP and head of well-being at Affinity Federal Credit Union , said the wealthy don’t bother with in-store financing offers.

“These are often overly complicated financial products with lots of fine print and exceptions that are more hassle than they’re worth,” said Gallagher. “If they want coverage or to borrow to purchase, they already have access to credit with more favorable options than in-store finance.”

Extended Warranties

Through their experience, both Lee and Gallagher told GOBankingRates that the wealthy don’t waste their money on extended warranties.

“[The wealthy] have broader insurance policies in place to cover personal property, which is generally at much more favorable rates per dollar compared to an extended warranty on a single item,” said Gallagher.

Travel Insurance

It’s not uncommon to purchase a flight ticket and receive a prompt asking if you’d like to buy travel insurance for an additional small fee.

The wealthy, however, never waste their money on travel insurance. Rather, Gallagher said they will use a rewards or premium credit card that includes travel protection in addition to other travel perks.

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Impulse Purchases

The next time you’re having a difficult day, think twice about heading on a shopping spree or blowing your money on lottery tickets to turn around your luck.

Ryan Cullen, co-founder and CEO of Cullen Cioffi Capital Management, previously told GOBankingRates that impulse purchases add up quickly over time and may result in draining your finances. Not only do the wealthy avoid impulse buys, but if your goal is to become rich, making too many impulse purchases makes it harder to achieve that financial milestone.

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