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Purdue Writing Lab/Purdue OWL

Since 1976, the Writing Lab has supported writers on the West Lafayette campus through a variety of services and community engagement initiatives using student-centered best practices. The Online Writing Lab (OWL) has been an extension of the Writing Lab since 1993, and offers global support through online reference materials and services. The Writing Lab and OWL, both part of the Department of English, are informed by and engage in research within the discipline of Composition and Rhetoric, including the subfields of writing center studies, writing program administration, second language studies, and professional writing.

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• Your Paper. Have it available in a file or on your computer desktop so that you can upload it to the submission form. Please be sure to include the assignment.
• Important: If using APA style, specify what edition you are required to use (6 or 7). Because APA 6 is now out of date, it will be assumed you are using APA 7 unless it is otherwise noted.
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Returned by: 08/30/24

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Just Write. You can go back and clean it up later. Write to get “raw materials” down to work with.

Answer the Question. After you have a draft going, read the instructor’s assignment again to make sure that you are answering the question.

Break It Up. Use paragraphs. Shorter paragraphs are more inviting. Paragraphs will help when you review your work.

Read It Aloud. Reading your almost-finished essay out loud to a friend, family member, or just yourself will help you spot things that you wouldn’t otherwise find.

Let It Sit. Finish your assignment many hours or a whole day before it is due. Set it aside for a while. The distance will give you a better perspective for reviewing your work.

Writing well will help you in both your education and career. All of us can use a little help with our writing. Having someone else read your work can help ensure that your writing achieves its intended purpose, whether that is to demonstrate what you have learned or to persuade readers to consider a new perspective on a topic.

Through the WISC Online Writing Lab, you can submit a draft of your work to receive feedback from a writing coach. The coach will review your draft and provide suggestions and tips to help you improve your writing and revision skills. Please include any specific questions or concerns you have about your draft so the coach can provide more detailed feedback. If you have questions about assignment requirements or an instructor’s feedback, please contact your instructor before submitting your work to the OWL.

You can expect to receive feedback in one to three business days.

If you submit multiple times within the same period, please allow up to three additional business days for each response after the first.

Writing a Thesis Statement

If the paper assignment asks a question, your thesis statement should lay out your answer to the question and how you are going to support your answer. If the paper assignment asks for consideration or exploration of a topic, your thesis statement should limit the scope, the range, of your exploration, and explain the approach or direction you will take. As you work on your paper, you may find yourself taking a stance on some aspect of the topic. If you start to take a stance, you can go back and sharpen your thesis statement so that it makes clear your position and gives a preview of how you are going to argue for your position. People who give writing advice about thesis statements tend to break them into two types:

• Argumentative: The writer takes a stance or answers a question—or even makes an assertion. In a sense, the writer makes a promise to try to convince the reader that the writer’s stance or answer is credible.
• Analytical: The writer puts forth a purpose, an intention to explore and evaluate. The thesis statement specifies the purpose of the exploration, the direction it will take, and how far it will go (the scope).

In the best case, you can determine from the paper assignment whether the thesis should be argumentative or analytical. However, sometimes this may not be clear. When you start writing, you may not know where your paper will go or what its thesis will be. However, as you work on your paper, these may become clear.

Writing the Introduction

You may be saying to yourself “OK, I get the part about the thesis statement, but how does the paper start?” You are right: your final paper should not start with an abrupt shouting of your thesis statement. However, your working draft may well start with your working thesis statement. It will help to keep you focused.

Some writers get stalled on the first sentence. They try to write the perfect first sentence. They try over and over again, and don’t actually get started on the paper.

It is better to start writing, outlining, or jotting down thoughts—whatever approach works best for you. You can write the introduction later, after you have a clear idea of what your paper does. After all, at the beginning you may not know whether your paper will turn out to be an argument or an exploration.

When you have a good draft of your paper and have come to writing the introduction, here are some things to consider in writing an introduction.

Your readers. Yes, the most important reader is your instructor. But your instructor will be reading your paper as someone who is interested in and knowledgeable about the subject. You want to lead up to your thesis statement in a way that develops its relation to and importance to the broader subject area of your paper—and, of course, shows its connection to the paper assignment.

In an online course, your fellow students may have the opportunity to read your paper and perhaps comment on it. You need to keep these readers in mind, too. Again, your introduction should show the relevance of your thesis to the subject matter of the course and lead to your thesis in a way that gets the readers’ attention.

Your opposition. If your paper is an exploration or an analysis, it may not have “opposition.” On the other hand, if your paper is an argument or assertion, you assume that some people will be opposed to or made uncomfortable by your thesis.

Research—Not Rehash

A research paper assignment may take you into areas of knowledge that you are not yet very familiar with. You may feel like throwing up you hands, saying, “People have already written about this much better than I ever could.” Soon you could find yourself summarizing what others have said, or—worse—perhaps patching together many direct quotations from others in a framework of words that you provide.

Yes, a research paper requires that you do research. You are not supposed merely to present your own opinion. You are supposed to do research on the topic or question. Then on the basis of what you have found, you develop a perspective—your own perspective.

To present your perspective, you do use what others have said. There are several ways you may do this.

Present the information or arguments you found in your research that are close to your perspective. However, you should go beyond quoting and then “rubber-stamping” the quotations. Bring out and emphasize the parts of others’ arguments that you think are the strongest.

This doesn’t mean that you ignore what you don’t find useful. You should acknowledge the other parts of the selected arguments that you find less useful, explain why you think that those parts are less useful, and maybe even explore how they could be improved.

Present the information or arguments of others that from your perspective are flawed or wrong. In the course of reviewing the opposition, you need to show the reader why this information or these arguments are flawed or wrong.

Discover areas that existing analysis or arguments have ignored or didn’t see. Then find information and/or develop arguments on your own to fill these gaps.

Doing Research

While doing your research, keep your purpose, your thesis, in mind. There are lots of books in the library and lots of resources on the Web. You don’t want to get sidetracked.

When you find several resources that make the same point or support the same step in your argument, evaluate them to determine the one or two that do the best job. In your notes, write for each one that you select the reasons why you think that it is a good source. This information probably won’t go in your paper, but it may help when you review your research and decide which resources to use.

Know in advance what reference style you are going to use for citations. The style may be specified in the paper assignment. Nowadays, many instructors prefer APA style. Unless the course instructions or paper assignment says otherwise, you are probably safe using APA style.

Knowing the reference style in advance is important so that you know what information about each source to keep track of: author(s), article title, journal title, book title, publisher, volume number, publication date, page numbers—or for a Web source also URL, date that you looked at it.

Below are links to some online resources for APA style:

http://www.apastyle.org/

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/

Writing the Conclusion

Naturally, your conclusion should bring your paper to a clear and satisfying end. It should not be abrupt. It should do more than merely summarize the points that your paper has made. Starting from a review of your main points, the conclusion could expand to show how your points are relevant to the larger subject area.

If your paper is an answer to a question, your conclusion could restate the question and summarize how you have answered it—and perhaps take into account how you have headed off other possible answers. If you can show the importance of your answer in relation to larger issues, this is a good place to do that.

Rereading and Revising

This is going to sound strange: Knowing exactly what you want to say may harm your paper. Especially after you have worked for a long time on a paper, knowing what you want to say can result in your seeing what you want to say when you reread your paper—even though all of what you want to say might not actually be there. That is because your mind plugs into the paper missing points, smooth logical transitions, helpful definitions of terms, and so on, that you have not actually put in the paper. How can you avoid this?

Start your assignment early enough so that you can let it sit. Pace your work so that you have at least a day to set your paper aside before you make your final revisions for submission. Having this distance will enable you to read the paper not as the writer, but as a fresh reader. You may be able to spot gaps in the argument or analysis, unclear terms, clumsy transitions—even errors in basic mechanics.

Read a draft of your paper aloud. This works very well with another person (friend, family member) as listener. You and your listener may hear lapses or missteps that you don’t see while reading silently. If you can’t find a listener, reading the paper out loud to yourself will help.

Writing a Literature Review

Usually a literature review appears at the beginning of an academic research paper. In the review, the writer surveys research that has already been done on the topic that he or she will address in his or her paper. Ideally the literature review will set up the context for the writer’s approach to the topic, summarizing what has already been said, and identifying trends and perhaps gaps or even mistakes in the published research.

Your instructor may assign a review of the literature on a particular topic as a way to get you thinking about and familiar with what has been said about that topic. The literature review may be an independent assignment, or it may be preparation for an upcoming course assignment such as a research paper.

Either way, the important thing to remember about a literature review is that it is not merely a list of references—or a list of references with a sentence or two attached to each reference to describe it.

A literature review should be organized in a way that relates to the topic.

For example, a large topic might be broken into subtopics, and then the literature review can group and survey research articles and books under the subtopics that they deal with.

If a large topic involves problems or unresolved issues, the literature review can connect each article or book with a problem or issue, and assesses how it addresses the problem or issue. If there is little or no research dealing with a particular problem or issue, this shortfall can be pointed out as a gap in the published research on the topic.

Perhaps there is a clear trend in thinking about the topic. In that case, the literature review can be organized to show the development of thinking about the topic.

The introduction to your literature review should explain or delineate your topic, and alert the reader to your plan for surveying the research on the topic.

The conclusion for your literature review should highlight the subtopics or issues that you identified, the trend that you followed, or the gap(s) in research that you found.

Finally, of course, you will need to provide a reference list with author and publication information for the works that you review.

Click the link below to see a brief example highlighting the organizational strategy and phrases used in part of a literature review.

http://guides.library.vcu.edu/ld.php?content_id=1720469

The link below will take you to two examples of literature reviews that are part of published research articles. The instructor who posted these examples introduces them with a good discussion of how literature reviews work.

Common Mechanical Errors

Listed here are some common mechanical errors.

Two Sentences Put Together with Just a Comma (Comma Splice)

When a sequence of words has a clear subject (doer of an action) and a verb (the action), it is a sentence:

A dog bit me.

Sentences can stand separately:

I went to the doctor. She told me not to worry about the bite.

These two sentences can be put together with a comma and a word (a conjunction):

I went to the doctor, and she told me not to worry about the bite.

However, two sentences that can stand separately and independently should not be put together with just a comma:

I went to the doctor, she told me not to worry about the bite.

This error is usually called a comma splice .

Sentence without a Verb, or Sentence without a Subject (Sentence Fragment)

A sentence must have a verb that says what the subject does, or did, or will do—or a verb that says what the subject was, is, or will be. This is not a sentence:

Not a dangerous dog.

We can make it a sentence by giving “dog” a verb. We will also have to rearrange the words a bit. All these are sentences:

The dog was not dangerous.

The dog is not dangerous.

The dog will not be dangerous.

If a sequence of words has a verb (an action), but no subject, it is not a sentence:

Barks loudly.

From the nature of the action, we know what is probably doing the action. However, to make this a sentence, we need a subject:

The dog barks loudly.

A sequence of words that is not a sentence is called a fragment .

Word Confused with Sound-Alike Word

This error is one that even experienced writers sometimes make.

Some words in English sound exactly alike but are written differently.

The pair its/it’s is a good example:

The animal ate its food.

We associate possessive forms with apostrophes, but for “it” the possessive is formed without an apostrophe. The sentence above is correct.

With “it” the apostrophe is used for the contraction of “it is.”

Be careful with an animal when it’s hungry.

There/their/they’re —we’ve got three going here.

“There” deals with place. This place could be a real location, or it could be a figurative place (meaning that something exits):

There is a place for us. That place is here.

There are many kinds of burritos.

“Their” is possessive:

They forgot their coats.

“They’re” is the contraction for “they are”:

I bet they’re going to be very cold.

Your/you’re confusion is similar to their/they’re confusion.

Possessive:

Be sure to check your email.

Contraction for “you are”:

Please say that you’re going to be home for Thanksgiving!

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Purdue OWL - Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for an Expository/Persuasive Essay

Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for an Expository/Persuasive Essay

Introduction

The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions:

• What is this?
• Why am I reading it?
• What do you want me to do?

You should answer these questions by doing the following:

• Set the context – provide general information about the main idea, explaining the situation so the reader can make sense of the topic and the claims you make and support
• State why the main idea is important – tell the reader why s/he should care and keep reading. Your goal is to create a compelling, clear, and convincing essay people will want to read and act upon
• State your thesis/claim – compose a sentence or two stating the position you will support with logos (sound reasoning: induction, deduction), pathos (balanced emotional appeal), and ethos (author credibility).

Thesis Checklist

Your thesis is more than a general statement about your main idea. It needs to establish a clear position you will support with balanced proofs (logos, pathos, ethos). Use the checklist below to help you create a thesis.

This section is adapted from Writing with a Thesis: A Rhetoric Reader by David Skwire and Sarah Skwire:

Make sure you avoid the following when creating your thesis:

• A thesis is not a title: Homes and schools (title) vs. Parents ought to participate more in the education of their children (good thesis).
• A thesis is not an announcement of the subject: My subject is the incompetence of the Supreme Court vs. The Supreme Court made a mistake when it ruled in favor of George W. Bush in the 2000 election.
• A thesis is not a statement of absolute fact: Jane Austen is the author of Pride and Prejudice.
• A thesis is not the whole essay: A thesis is your main idea/claim/refutation/problem-solution expressed in a single sentence or a combination of sentences.
• Please note that according to the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers , Sixth Edition, "A thesis statement is a single sentence that formulates both your topic and your point of view" (Gibaldi 56). However, if your paper is more complex and requires a thesis statement, your thesis may require a combination of sentences .

Make sure you follow these guidelines when creating your thesis:

• A good thesis is unified: Detective stories are not a high form of literature, but people have always been fascinated by them, and many fine writers have experimented with them (floppy). vs. Detective stories appeal to the basic human desire for thrills (concise).
• A good thesis is specific: James Joyce’s Ulysses is very good. vs. James Joyce’s Ulysses helped create a new way for writers to deal with the unconscious.
• Try to be as specific as possible (without providing too much detail) when creating your thesis: James Joyce’s Ulysses helped create a new way for writers to deal with the unconscious. vs. James Joyce’s Ulysses helped create a new way for writers to deal with the unconscious by utilizing the findings of Freudian psychology and introducing the techniques of literary stream-of-consciousness.

Quick Checklist:

_____ The thesis/claim follows the guidelines outlined above

_____ The thesis/claim matches the requirements and goals of the assignment

_____ The thesis/claim is clear and easily recognizable

_____ The thesis/claim seems supportable by good reasoning/data, emotional appeal

Body Paragraphs

Summary: This resource outlines the generally accepted structure for introductions, body paragraphs, and conclusions in an academic argument paper. Keep in mind that this resource contains guidelines and not strict rules about organization. Your structure needs to be flexible enough to meet the requirements of your purpose and audience.

Body Paragraphs: Moving from General to Specific Information

Your paper should be organized in a manner that moves from general to specific information. Every time you begin a new subject, think of an inverted pyramid - the broadest range of information sits at the top, and as the paragraph or paper progresses, the author becomes more and more focused on the argument ending with specific, detailed evidence supporting a claim. Lastly, the author explains how and why the information she has just provided connects to and supports her thesis (a brief wrap up or warrant).

  The four elements of a good paragraph (TTEB)

A good paragraph should contain at least the following four elements: T ransition, T opic sentence, specific E vidence and analysis, and a B rief wrap-up sentence (also known as a warrant) – TTEB!

• A T ransition sentence leading in from a previous paragraph to assure smooth reading. This acts as a hand off from one idea to the next.
• A T opic sentence that tells the reader what you will be discussing in the paragraph.
• Specific E vidence and analysis that supports one of your claims and that provides a deeper level of detail than your topic sentence.
• A B rief wrap-up sentence that tells the reader how and why this information supports the paper’s thesis. The brief wrap-up is also known as the warrant. The warrant is important to your argument because it connects your reasoning and support to your thesis, and it shows that the information in the paragraph is related to your thesis and helps defend it.

Rebuttal Sections

In order to present a fair and convincing message, you may need to anticipate, research, and outline some of the common positions (arguments) that dispute your thesis. If the situation (purpose) calls for you to do this, you will present and then refute these other positions in the rebuttal section of your essay.

It is important to consider other positions because in most cases, your primary audience will be fence-sitters. Fence-sitters are people who have not decided which side of the argument to support.

People who are on your side of the argument will not need a lot of information to align with your position. People who are completely against your argument - perhaps for ethical or religious reasons - will probably never align with your position no matter how much information you provide. Therefore, the audience you should consider most important are those people who haven't decided which side of the argument they will support - the fence-sitters.

In many cases, these fence-sitters have not decided which side to align with because they see value in both positions. Therefore, to not consider opposing positions to your own in a fair manner may alienate fence-sitters when they see that you are not addressing their concerns or discussion opposing positions at all.

Organizing your rebuttal section

Following the TTEB method outlined in the Body Paragraph section, forecast all the information that will follow in the rebuttal section and then move point by point through the other positions addressing each one as you go. The outline below, adapted from Seyler's Understanding Argument , is an example of a rebuttal section from a thesis essay.

When you rebut or refute an opposing position, use the following three-part organization:

The opponent’s argument – Usually, you should not assume that your reader has read or remembered the argument you are refuting. Thus at the beginning of your paragraph, you need to state, accurately and fairly, the main points of the argument you will refute.

Your position – Next, make clear the nature of your disagreement with the argument or position you are refuting. Your position might assert, for example, that a writer has not proved his assertion because he has provided evidence that is outdated, or that the argument is filled with fallacies.

Your refutation – The specifics of your counterargument will depend upon the nature of your disagreement. If you challenge the writer’s evidence, then you must present the more recent evidence. If you challenge assumptions, then you must explain why they do not hold up. If your position is that the piece is filled with fallacies, then you must present and explain each fallacy.

Conclusions

Conclusions wrap up what you have been discussing in your paper. After moving from general to specific information in the introduction and body paragraphs, your conclusion should begin pulling back into more general information that restates the main points of your argument. Conclusions may also call for action or overview future possible research. The following outline may help you conclude your paper:

In a general way,

• restate your topic and why it is important,
• restate your thesis/claim,
• address opposing viewpoints and explain why readers should align with your position,
• call for action or overview future research possibilities.

Remember that once you accomplish these tasks, unless otherwise directed by your instructor, you are finished. Done. Complete. Don't try to bring in new points or end with a whiz bang(!) conclusion or try to solve world hunger in the final sentence of your conclusion. Simplicity is best for a clear, convincing message.

The preacher's maxim is one of the most effective formulas to follow for argument papers:

• Tell what you're going to tell them (introduction).
• Tell them (body).
• Tell them what you told them (conclusion).

 Copyright ©1995-2011 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University .

Online Writing Lab Menu

Online writing lab, welcome to the online writing lab, the owl is closed for summer 2024..

Welcome to the  Tutoring and Academic Engagement Center 's Online Writing Lab. Please note that this is an asynchronous service; you will receive feedback after you send us your work. We also offer in-person tutoring on the 4th floor of the Knight Library.

Please read the following instructions carefully.

• The OWL is closed over the weekend from noon on Friday and reopens on Monday morning.   You will receive feedback on your submission within 48 hours . The weekend does not count in our 48-hour turnaround time. If you need feedback sooner, consider using our in-person tutoring services.
• Submissions longer than 8 pages will receive feedback on only the first 8 pages unless you specify a section for review.
• Our goal is to help you develop your skills as a writer. The OWL is  not a proofreading service . While tutors may comment on recurring patterns of grammatical errors impacting flow and clarity, they do not offer line-by-line corrections.
• OWL tutors cannot provide feedback on the following: graduate prospectuses, theses, or dissertations; essay exams or take-home essays (without prior permission from a course instructor), and group projects. 
• For group projects please use in-person tutoring . We ask that as many members of the group attend as possible (at least 50%) to review and discuss your project.
• If you have any questions, please contact the Tutoring and Academic Engagement Center at [email protected]

Graduate Students:

Writing submitted through the OWL receives feedback from undergraduate peer writing tutors. We encourage you to begin with your home department for feedback on prospectus, thesis, or dissertation work. Additional support is also available through the Center of Diversity and Community (CoDaC) Writing Consultant.  

1-800-544-2787 / Request Info

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Writing Lab

Online writing lab (owl).

The Online Writing Lab, or OWL, is a free online service that is available to all students, both domestic and international. Students may send their writing by using the online submission form , and an instructor will respond by email with written comments and suggestions.

• The OWL accepts two submissions per student for each module and up to 1,000 words per submission.
• The OWL is closed on Saturdays and Sundays.
• The OWL accepts submissions from students in EAP classes (all levels).
• Students taking virtual (onsite) classes through Zoom are also welcome to use the OWL for their assignments.

Please note: The OWL is not a proofreading service. It does NOT edit student papers for grammar or correct all errors.

Both the Online Writing Lab (OWL) and Virtual Language Lab can help students with:

• Organization
• Composition

Please note: The Writing Lab and OWL are closed during all school holidays and breaks.

Improve Your Writing

Writing Terms Glossary

Glossary of Grammar/Writing Terms

Here are some grammar and vocabulary definitions that you can use in your essay and discussion writing activities.

Here are some grammar and vocabulary definitions which you can use in your essay and discussion writing activities.

Schedule time for writing. Start early.

Make time for writing at home and at school; make an appointment with the Writing Lab as soon as you get an assignment.

Allow enough time for research, development of ideas, and revision.

Generate ideas before you start writing.

Write down a quick list of ideas on your topic.

Define the purpose of your writing.

Think about the audience you're writing for.

Focus on ideas. Spelling, grammar, and punctuation can be fixed in later stages of the writing process.

Revise your writing. Try reading aloud to hear mistakes.

Plan your writing . Organize your ideas into paragraphs and organize your paragraphs into a logical beginning, middle, and end.

What is Plagiarism?

Plagiarism is the act of copying the work of another and representing it as your own. Some common forms of plagiarism include copying from the Internet, a friend's homework, or a book or magazine without giving credit to the author.

It is OK to copy when:

• A new artist copies another artist’s work when first learning to draw.
• A child copies a sentence while learning to write.
• A traditional story is passed down in writing from one generation to the next and the author is unknown.

In some cultures, copying someone else's writing without giving credit to the author is sometimes acceptable. For a college student in the USA, however, copying without citing the source is NOT an acceptable practice.

Copying is plagiarism when:

• Anyone copies parts or all of someone else’s concept, artwork, or design and uses it as their own without citing the source.
• Anyone copies all or part of a newspaper article, book, magazine, essay, or any other writing, and presents it as his/her own writing without giving credit to the writer.

Plagiarism is a serious academic offense! You can lose all credit for an assignment and face other disciplinary action for plagiarizing. See Liberal Arts Guidelines for Evaluation of Online Written Work for more information on plagiarism and the Academy of Art University's official policy regarding it.

How to Avoid Plagiarism

Cite your Sources

• Cite quotations and borrowed ideas. To cite something you need to tell the reader where you found the quote. You need to be aware of, and use the special Modern Language Association (MLA) rules for citing sources. View this page for some examples of in-text MLA citations.
• Students are encouraged to use A Writer's Reference by Diana Hacker for help with MLA style, revision, punctuation, and sentence-style.
• Enclose borrowed language in quotation marks ( “ “ ). And don’t forget to cite the source

Example: In his book, Jim Gardner describes the statue as being “the absolute best representation of the human figure known to art historians” (94).

You can avoid plagiarizing somebody else's work by paraphrasing, or rewriting their ideas in your own words. You can also summarize, or briefly explain the main ideas of the author's work in your own words. Remember that you will still need to cite your sources. View this page for more information on Paraphrasing and Summarizing. Below are some examples of various ways to put an author's writing into your own words:

Changing the word order: Original Text . Many of Bonny Dagger's designs have influenced everything from fashion merchandising to the world of architecture. Her characteristic circles have become a sort of cultural icon the nation over. Changed Example : Bonny Dagger's popular circle shapes have been a big influence on styles in architecture, fashion, and more (Davis 40).

Changing the word form : Original Text : Many of Bonny Dagger's designs have influenced everything from fashion merchandising to the world of architecture. Her characteristic circles have become a sort of cultural icon the nation over. Reworded Example : The circular designs of Bonny Dagger have been influential in fields like fashion merchandising and architecture. They have become icons all over the nation (Smith et al. 876).

Using different words with similar meanings. A THESAURUS is a good reference book to use for this : Original Text : Ms. Madunna's films marked the end of a tantalizing era of novel, silent classics. Her stylized moods meshed with the interesting character of each of her films. Reworded Example: Katy Madunna's movies were the last in an era of popular, silent films. Madunna's acting style matched each of her unique movies (Peters and Rafael 342).

Works Cited The examples of text above were actually created for this site and not taken from original texts so a list of works cited is not included here. For an example of a "works cited" list see Examples of MLA Citations.

Paraphrasing & Summarizing

Paraphrasing is:

Restating in your own words   a passage written by someone other than yourself. Paraphrased versions of a passage include all the details of the original text.

Summarizing is:

Restate in your own words only the main idea(s) of a passage written by someone other than yourself. The details are left out of the summary.

Original text: When Europeans reached present-day Latin America they found three important civilizations: Mayan, Aztec, and Incan. That we should still call the native peoples of this hemisphere “Indians” perpetuates the error of sixteenth-century Spaniards who wanted to believe they had reached the spice-rich Indies. (Thomas E. Skidmore, Peter H. Smith. Modern Latin America Fourth Edition, Oxford University Press, 1997.)

Paraphrase: European explorers who mistakenly thought they had reached India, encountered the Mayas, the Aztecs, and the Incas, three major native cultures of modern-day Latin America. They erroneously called these people “Indians,” a misnomer that persists even today.

Summary: Referring to the native groups of modern-day Latin America as “Indians” is a misnomer that has persisted since sixteenth-century European explorers erroneously gave them that name.

What purposes do paraphrasing and summarizing serve?:

• Add credibility to your argument
• Can help describe opposing points of view
• Provide a way to include information without quoting too much
• Provide important information from an undistinguished passage
• Provide brief background information

Does the author paraphrased or summarized have to be attributed?:

YES, otherwise is it plagiarism!

This can be accomplished by including the source in the paraphrase or summary : According to Skidmore and Smith, … Attribution can also be given after the paraphrase or summary: European explorers… (Skidmore, Smith 13)

MLA Examples

These are just a few examples of the many types of in-text citations. Consult a recently published MLA style guide for a more complete and current list of rules for MLA style.

One author from a book or Internet site and the author is not named in the text : Include the author’s last name and page number/s. Being accurate and consistent is important when following the rules of style for documentation (Raimes 96-98). One author from a book or Internet site and the author is named in the text : Include the page number/s. Raimes points out that being accurate and consistent is important when following the rules of style for documentation (96-98).

Two authors : Include the authors’ last names and page number/s. Learning word suffixes will increase your ability to recognize and create words (Waldhorn and Zeiger 37).

More than two authors : Include the first author’s last name alphabetically, followed by “et al.” and page number/s. In the 1990's, citizens in the United States had over 220 million guns (Boyer et al. 1079).

Author not named : Use the first few words of the title to shorten it if it’s too long and the page number/s. The school's exhibit at the Blackhawk museum got an impressive and positive public response ("Impressive Collection," 5).

An Internet site with no author named and no page numbers : Use the first few words of the title of the site shortened if it’s too long. One hundred years ago, advertisers developed a flashy, excessive style ("The American").

Works Cited: Click here to see example Works Cited list entries.

Liberal Arts Guidelines

Liberal Arts Guidelines for Written Work

All written work* must meet the criteria below to be accepted for grading. Work that does not meet the criteria will be immediately returned to the student. The student must visit the Online Writing Lab (OWL) for help in revising the work and then resubmit the work no later than the next Module. A one-letter grade penalty will be applied to all resubmitted work.

All written work must:

• be spell-checked and grammar checked and proofread for errors not caught by computer check.
• Always include a heading containing Student's Full Name, Class Title & Section. Submission Date, Instructor's Name.
• be typed and double-spaced .
• cite references used according to MLA style , (unless otherwise indicated by instructor).

» See examples of MLA Style

Students are encouraged to use A Writer's Reference   by Diana Hacker for help with MLA style, revision, punctuation, and sentence-style.

The Academy of Art University Plagiarism Policy as defined on page 231 of the 2003-2004 catalog is : " All writing and artwork must be written in the student's own words. Any quotes or paraphrases from source material must be properly footnoted. Any student who plagiarizes will receive a grade of F for that project and/or the final grade and is grounds for dismissal.

The above policy constitutes an official warning to each student. Any violations will not be given a second attempt to correct. If you have further questions about plagiarism, please see your instructor."

» See also: Plagiarism

Grading Scale A = outstanding work B = above average work C = average work that meets all stated criteria D = below average work that fails to meet stated criteria in one or more areas F = work that fails to meet stated criteria in all areas * Please note that although discussion responses should have proper grammar and spelling and be void of plagiarism, MLA formatting guidelines may not apply to these submissions.

Compare/Contrast Art History Essay

Writing a Compare/Contrast Art History Essay

Important Points of an Art History Image

• Who is the artist or is the artist unknown?
• What period or style is it?
• What is the name of the artwork?
• To what culture does it belong?
• Of what material/medium is it made?
• What is its subject matter?
• How big is it? Does its medium affect the quality?
• What are its formal elements (line, color, composition, etc.)?
• Is it abstract, naturalistic, idealistic, realistic, or a combination?
• How is the subject being depicted?
• What is the origin of the style? - Is it a combination of cultural styles?

Function/Symbolism (Often relates to cultural context)

• What was it used for? Why was it made?
• It is sacred or secular?
• Does it communicate a message? Is it asking for something?
• Does it contain symbolism? What does it mean?

Cultural Context

• What was happening historically, politically, socially, religiously, intellectually, and/or economically at the time it was made?
• What were qualities of life at the time and place the piece was made that may have affected its function and style?
• Do historical events or overall aesthetic tastes relate to the image/story depicted?

Compare and Contrast/Be Concise and to the Point

• Explore the differences and similarities of the two works being compared using the four topic areas discussed above.
• Begin your essay with an opening paragraph stating the main point of the comparison? (Remember to add the basics such as identification.) Asking, "Why did the instructor choose these two particular works?" will lead you to this.
• Each paragraph should discuss what is the same and what is different about the works in regards to each topic listed above. (e.g. one paragraph will discuss what is similar and different regarding style.)
• Start with main concepts and then move to relevant details. (Remember to state the obvious.)
• Use complete sentences. Each paragraph should focus on one main concept/topic.
• Conclude with a paragraph that sums up your main ideas.

Example Essay:

In this essay, I will compare and contrast two ancient sculptures in the round. The first is Nude Woman, or Venus of Willendorf, from the prehistoric period. The small limestone sculpture was found in modern day Austria and dates to circa 25,000 b.c.e. The second image is Khafre, a life-size Egyptian sculpture made of diorite stone from much later, circa 2,500 b.c.e. Both sculptures contain magical or supernatural symbolism, as well as concepts of life and death.

The Venus is probably a votive figure or offering to the gods. She is abundant, perhaps pregnant, probably to symbolize fertility and to bring good fortune in the fields and in human reproduction. Little is known about the sculpture, but life at this time must have been a struggle for survival and she represents the core of the cycle of life. Khafre is a "Ka" statue, meant to be buried with the mummified body of the king of which he is a portrait. It is to serve as a back-up to the mummy to offer a place for the Ka, or soul, to reside at night. The portrait also helps the Ka recognize its residence and body. Most Egyptian art focused on permanence and the afterlife such as this one. Whereas Venus is probably an offering to the gods and a symbol of life to an entire culture, Khafre is meant to retain the individual man's soul and help him travel to and from the afterlife.

The Venus figure is a very small (about 4 ½ inches high) standing naked figure, whereas Khafre is a life-size and clothed seated portrait. They are both stone and both human figures but differ greatly in style. The Venus exhibits a combination of many stylistic elements. It is naturalistic and organic in areas of the body; exhibits full breasts, a round stomach, the pubic triangle, and chubby legs. She is a series of natural spheres. However, it is abstract as well. The head is stylized with no face, so that it represents a "type," perhaps representing the ideal of womanhood. Therefore, she is also idealistic.

Khafre is naturalistic and serves as a portrait, although it is depicted quite flawlessly, and thus is idealized. The Egyptian sculpture has a refined surface and contains precise detail in the face's features and in the reliefs on the throne on which Khafre sits. One feels the block of the stone from which it was carved and is very formal, stiff, and rigid. Khafre's blockiness and dark color add to its strong sense of permanence, common to Egyptian sculptures of royalty.

To conclude, both sculptures reflect the ancient cultures by which they were made and focus on the cycle of life. One concentrates on a type, the other on an individual. Stylistically, they both show elements of naturalism and idealism, although Venus utilizes more organic shapes, while Khafre is more rigid and blocky.

For help brainstorming and organizing the ideas in your essay, you can use the Outlining Worksheet for Compare & Contrast Essays .

Compare/Contrast Worksheet

Below is a worksheet that you can use as a guide in organizing some of the important points in a compare/contrast essay about two pieces of artwork. You can print it, fill it out, and use it as an outline for your essay. NOTE: There are many different ways to organize a compare/contrast essay and this outline worksheet serves as only one suggestion. You may want to use this worksheet simply to brainstorm and organize your ideas before writing your essay

Avoiding Sexist Language

What is sexist language?

The two most common examples of sexist language are: 1. Using "he" to refer to both men and women. If a person wants to paint well, he must practice everyday. 2. Including gender in titles: fireman hostess policewoman male nurse stewardess mankind manmade

Why should I avoid using sexist language?

• It is not acceptable in academic or business settings
• It often gives inaccurate information
• It fails to recognize the contributions of both sexes

How can I avoid using sexist language?

1. Instead of using he to refer to men and women, use "he or she" If a person wants to paint well, he or she must practice everyday.

2. Use the plural form If people want to paint well, they must practice everyday .

3. You can alternate he and she for different examples If an athlete wants to compete, he will spend a lot of time training. A good doctor will give her patients the best possible care.

If you choose option 3, be sure not to use feminine and masculine pronouns for the same example

INCORRECT: The artist wanted to display his work at the exhibit but she missed the deadline CORRECT: The artist wanted to display her work at the exhibit but she missed the deadline. CORRECT: The artist wanted to display his work at the exhibit but he missed the deadline .

Instead of including gender in titles, use titles without gender.

firefighter host police officer nurse flight attendant humankind/humanity synthetic/manufactured

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Writing Support Through the CFLC

Writing tutoring:.

The  tutoring appointments for writing support, including writing support for English Language Learners,  are designed to assist with all stages of the writing process.  During a fifty minute students can brainstorm ideas, go over an outline, or work on a draft.  Tutors do not edit papers.  They will work with you to help your writing improve. Papers to be reviewed during a session should ideally be five to eight pages in length. The CFLC does not have staff to provide writing assistance for dissertations or pieces being submitted for publication. To make an appointment please follow the instructions.  All appointments beginfive to eight pages in length. on the hour  (*Except A&P).  

The Online Writing Lab (OWL):

The OWL offers asynchronous, email-based feedback on work in progress. Writers can submit drafts and identify revision priorities through an online form and OWL tutors will deliver written feedback within 48 hours. As in face-to-face sessions, OWL tutorials aim to help writers improve their overall processes, with emphasis on higher-order effectiveness rather than cosmetic editing. 

Submit Your Paper to OWL

OWL Fall 2024 Calendar

Monday, september 9   - first day accepting tutorial requests for the fall semester., wednesday, october 9   - deadline for tutorial requests to be completed before fall break., saturday, oct. 12, to tuesday, oct. 15   - closed for fall break. requests received during the break will be processed on wednesday, october 16., sunday, november 24   - deadline for tutorial requests to be completed before thanksgiving holidays., wednesday, nov. 27, to sunday, dec. 1   - closed for thanksgiving holidays. requests received during the break will be processed on monday, december 2., thursday, december 5  - deadline for fall semester tutorial requests., monday, december 9   - closed for winter recess., please also note that the owl is closed on all saturdays..

For questions about our tutoring services, please contact:

Cecilie Reid-Joyner Associate Director

reidce@bc.edu

Writing Feedback Samples

Frequently Asked Questions about OWL

Who can use the owl.

The OWL is open to all current members of the Boston College community. Writers must be logged in with their school-issued Gmail addresses to access the tutorial request form. 

How much does the OWL cost?

Like the in-person tutorial services offered at the Connors Family Learning Center, OWL tutoring is completely  free  to eligible users.

When is the OWL available?

The OWL is  open for business Sunday through Friday  and follows the same calendar as the Connors Family Learning Center's in-person tutoring services.  It is not available during the winter, spring, or summer breaks, nor is it available during periods officially designated as university holidays, and closes on the final day of undergraduate classes each semester. During regular business hours,  OWL submissions will be processed three times daily: at 10:00 AM, 2:00 PM, and 6:00 PM . Wait times for submissions received after a given process time will not begin until the subsequent processing time (e.g., if your paper arrives at 6:30 PM, it will not be processed--and your expected 48 hour waiting period will not begin--until 10:00 AM the following day). Please plan accordingly.

What types of submissions can I get help with?

The OWL currently limits submissions in any discipline to  8 double-spaced pages or less .  If you are working on a longer writing project, you may wish to send only a portion of your draft, or to break your essay into parts and submit them separately. Long research papers, theses, and dissertations are not eligible, nor are assignments designated as "take-home" midterm or final writing examinations.  We will, however, accept non-coursework related writing, such as cover letters and application essays. Questions regarding writing projects longer than 8 pages should be directed to Cecilie Reid-Joyner at reidce@bc.edu.

How often can I use the OWL?

Students are encouraged to submit to the OWL as often as they like; however, we ask that students limit pending submissions to one at a time. In the event that multiple submissions are received simultaneously from a single user, they will be read in order of receipt, with each response processed only after the preceding ones have been completed and returned.

Who will be reading my submission?

The OWL, like the Connors Family Learning Center's in-person tutoring, is staffed by qualified graduate and undergraduate readers who have been trained to read and respond to the work of their peers both critically and constructively.

What kind of feedback should I expect from my reader?

In the same way that sending an e-mail differs from face-to-face conversation, on-line tutoring differs from in-person tutoring.  Rather than comment upon the sentence level, your OWL tutor will  emphasize broader, more global, conceptual and rhetorical issues .  Such comments may include affirmation of parts of your writing that work well, questions to consider as you revise, and advice about general ways of improving your work.  Your tutor may also offer you the opportunity to engage in an active dialogue about your writing in progress.

Sample feedback

What kind of feedback shouldn't I expect from my reader?

The OWL is not an editing or proofreading service . Any requests for such services will result in your paper being returned to you exactly as it arrived.  Your tutor will not attempt to comment upon everything in your paper, and you should not assume that your paper is "perfect" after it has been read by a tutor. We believe that improvement is a gradual process achieved primarily by the writer, so you should expect to have to do additional work on your own. Your tutor also will not evaluate your writing or predict a grade. Finally, your OWL tutor will comment upon your writing only insofar as it affects its subject content; our tutors are not subject experts, and will not attempt to provide subject area direction or clarification. 

How soon can I expect a response to my submission?

Any submissions received during regular OWL business hours will typically generate responses within 48 hours.  Writers submitting during peak business periods (e.g., midterms, end-of-semester, etc.) may experience a wait time of as much as 72 hours.   Tagging your submissions with time-sensitive headings, such as "urgent" or "ASAP" or "due tomorrow," will not expedite the process or generate special priority handling .  Always be sure to budget at least a three-day turnaround window between the date of your submission and its due date.

What BC students are saying about the OWL

“ My tutor highlighted specific passages for both compliments and critiques. Her feedback was extremely useful toward my revisions. ”

“ My OWL reader delivered some of the best feedback I have ever received from a tutor. I am extremely grateful for all of his help. ”

“ The OWL is an incredibly helpful tool for writers and I appreciate having this resource! ”

“ The tutor offered clear and extensive comments about my thesis statement, the quality of my analysis, and my essay’s structure. ”

“ I was extremely pleased with my tutor's feedback. It was even more thorough, precise, and clear than expected. ”

“ All of my tutors from the OWL have been extremely helpful in my writing process. They pushed me to improve my writing and offered new tactics that I can use on my own. ”

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The HOWL will begin accepting submissions for the 2024 Fall Semester

on Sunday, September 1st  and providing reviews on Tuesday, September 3rd.  

Welcome to the HOWL!  

HACC students may receive written feedback via email from a HACC Professional Writing Tutor by submitting writings (journal entries, essays, papers, speeches, etc.) through the form below. Students also have the opportunity to follow up with a HOWL tutor in a Zoom session to discuss their feedback by appointment.

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One of the most important parts of receiving online tutor feedback is timing.   Remember, writing tutors require time to review an essay and write feedback. Do not wait too long to submit your essay; if you do, you may not receive feedback before the deadline or you may not have time to make the changes the tutor suggests.

Tutors make every effort to return feedback within 48 hours of submission. However, depending on volume and length of submissions, return times may take up to 72 hours.  Your tutor will email your feedback to your HAWKmail account as an attachment.  You will need to download the attachment to view the tutor's comments in the margins of your paper.  

As you prepare your essay for submission, please adhere to the following guidelines.

• All documents must be submitted in .doc or .docx format.
• Attach assignment sheet. 
• The tutor’s primary focus will be on organization, clarity, and content.

For Questions and Assistance please email Robin Edwards at [email protected] .    

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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Argumentative Essays

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What is an argumentative essay?

The argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the student to investigate a topic; collect, generate, and evaluate evidence; and establish a position on the topic in a concise manner.

Please note : Some confusion may occur between the argumentative essay and the expository essay. These two genres are similar, but the argumentative essay differs from the expository essay in the amount of pre-writing (invention) and research involved. The argumentative essay is commonly assigned as a capstone or final project in first year writing or advanced composition courses and involves lengthy, detailed research. Expository essays involve less research and are shorter in length. Expository essays are often used for in-class writing exercises or tests, such as the GED or GRE.

Argumentative essay assignments generally call for extensive research of literature or previously published material. Argumentative assignments may also require empirical research where the student collects data through interviews, surveys, observations, or experiments. Detailed research allows the student to learn about the topic and to understand different points of view regarding the topic so that she/he may choose a position and support it with the evidence collected during research. Regardless of the amount or type of research involved, argumentative essays must establish a clear thesis and follow sound reasoning.

The structure of the argumentative essay is held together by the following.

• A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first paragraph of the essay.

In the first paragraph of an argument essay, students should set the context by reviewing the topic in a general way. Next the author should explain why the topic is important ( exigence ) or why readers should care about the issue. Lastly, students should present the thesis statement. It is essential that this thesis statement be appropriately narrowed to follow the guidelines set forth in the assignment. If the student does not master this portion of the essay, it will be quite difficult to compose an effective or persuasive essay.

• Clear and logical transitions between the introduction, body, and conclusion.

Transitions are the mortar that holds the foundation of the essay together. Without logical progression of thought, the reader is unable to follow the essay’s argument, and the structure will collapse. Transitions should wrap up the idea from the previous section and introduce the idea that is to follow in the next section.

• Body paragraphs that include evidential support.

Each paragraph should be limited to the discussion of one general idea. This will allow for clarity and direction throughout the essay. In addition, such conciseness creates an ease of readability for one’s audience. It is important to note that each paragraph in the body of the essay must have some logical connection to the thesis statement in the opening paragraph. Some paragraphs will directly support the thesis statement with evidence collected during research. It is also important to explain how and why the evidence supports the thesis ( warrant ).

However, argumentative essays should also consider and explain differing points of view regarding the topic. Depending on the length of the assignment, students should dedicate one or two paragraphs of an argumentative essay to discussing conflicting opinions on the topic. Rather than explaining how these differing opinions are wrong outright, students should note how opinions that do not align with their thesis might not be well informed or how they might be out of date.

• Evidential support (whether factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal).

The argumentative essay requires well-researched, accurate, detailed, and current information to support the thesis statement and consider other points of view. Some factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal evidence should support the thesis. However, students must consider multiple points of view when collecting evidence. As noted in the paragraph above, a successful and well-rounded argumentative essay will also discuss opinions not aligning with the thesis. It is unethical to exclude evidence that may not support the thesis. It is not the student’s job to point out how other positions are wrong outright, but rather to explain how other positions may not be well informed or up to date on the topic.

• A conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis, but readdresses it in light of the evidence provided.

It is at this point of the essay that students may begin to struggle. This is the portion of the essay that will leave the most immediate impression on the mind of the reader. Therefore, it must be effective and logical. Do not introduce any new information into the conclusion; rather, synthesize the information presented in the body of the essay. Restate why the topic is important, review the main points, and review your thesis. You may also want to include a short discussion of more research that should be completed in light of your work.

A complete argument

Perhaps it is helpful to think of an essay in terms of a conversation or debate with a classmate. If I were to discuss the cause of World War II and its current effect on those who lived through the tumultuous time, there would be a beginning, middle, and end to the conversation. In fact, if I were to end the argument in the middle of my second point, questions would arise concerning the current effects on those who lived through the conflict. Therefore, the argumentative essay must be complete, and logically so, leaving no doubt as to its intent or argument.

The five-paragraph essay

A common method for writing an argumentative essay is the five-paragraph approach. This is, however, by no means the only formula for writing such essays. If it sounds straightforward, that is because it is; in fact, the method consists of (a) an introductory paragraph (b) three evidentiary body paragraphs that may include discussion of opposing views and (c) a conclusion.

Longer argumentative essays

Complex issues and detailed research call for complex and detailed essays. Argumentative essays discussing a number of research sources or empirical research will most certainly be longer than five paragraphs. Authors may have to discuss the context surrounding the topic, sources of information and their credibility, as well as a number of different opinions on the issue before concluding the essay. Many of these factors will be determined by the assignment.

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