essay on india history

Ancient India

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India is a country in South Asia whose name comes from the Indus River. The name 'Bharata' is used as a designation for the country in their constitution referencing the ancient mythological emperor, Bharata, whose story is told, in part, in the Indian epic Mahabharata .

According to the writings known as the Puranas (religious/historical texts written down in the 5th century CE), Bharata conquered the whole subcontinent of India and ruled the land in peace and harmony. The land was, therefore, known as Bharatavarsha (`the subcontinent of Bharata'). Hominid activity in the Indian subcontinent stretches back over 250,000 years, and it is, therefore, one of the oldest inhabited regions on the planet.

Archaeological excavations have discovered artifacts used by early humans, including stone tools, which suggest an extremely early date for human habitation and technology in the area. While the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt have long been recognized for their celebrated contributions to civilization , India has often been overlooked, especially in the West, though its history and culture is just as rich. The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 7000-c. 600 BCE) was among the greatest of the ancient world, covering more territory than either Egypt or Mesopotamia and producing an equally vibrant and progressive culture.

It is the birthplace of four great world religions - Hinduism , Jainism , Buddhism , and Sikhism - as well as the philosophical school of Charvaka which influenced the development of scientific thought and inquiry. The inventions and innovations of the people of ancient India include many aspects of modern life taken for granted today including the flush toilet, drainage and sewer systems, public pools, mathematics, veterinary science , plastic surgery, board games, yoga and meditation, as well as many more.

Prehistory of India

The areas of present-day India, Pakistan, and Nepal have provided archaeologists and scholars with the richest sites of the most ancient pedigree. The species Homo heidelbergensis (a proto-human who was an ancestor of modern Homo sapiens ) inhabited the subcontinent of India centuries before humans migrated into the region known as Europe . Evidence of the existence of Homo heidelbergensis was first discovered in Germany in 1907 and, since, further discoveries have established fairly clear migration patterns of this species out of Africa .

Recognition of the antiquity of their presence in India has been largely due to the fairly late archaeological interest in the area as, unlike work in Mesopotamia and Egypt, western excavations in India did not begin in earnest until the 1920s. Though the ancient city of Harappa was known to exist as early as 1829, its archaeological significance was ignored and the later excavations corresponded to an interest in locating the probable sites referred to in the great Indian epics Mahabharata and Ramayana (both of the 5th or 4th centuries BCE) while ignoring the possibility of a much more ancient past for the region.

The village of Balathal (near Udaipur in Rajasthan), to cite only one example, illustrates the antiquity of India's history as it dates to 4000 BCE. Balathal was not discovered until 1962 and excavations were not begun there until the 1990s CE. Even older is the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh, dated at c. 7000 BCE but showing evidence of even earlier habitation, which was not discovered until 1974.

Archaeological excavations in the past 50 years have dramatically changed the understanding of India's past and, by extension, world history. A 4000-year-old skeleton discovered at Balathal in 2009 provides the oldest evidence of leprosy in India. Prior to this find, leprosy was considered a much younger disease thought to have been carried from Africa to India at some point and then from India to Europe by the army of Alexander the Great following his death in 323 BCE.

It is now understood that significant human activity was underway in India by the Holocene Period (10,000 years ago) and that many historical assumptions, based upon earlier work in Egypt and Mesopotamia, need to be reviewed and revised. The beginnings of the Vedic tradition in India, still practiced today, can now be dated, at least in part, to the indigenous people of ancient sites such as Balathal and their interaction and blending with the culture of Aryan migrants who arrived in the region between c. 2000-c. 1500 BCE, initiating the so-called Vedic Period (c. 1500-c.500 BCE) during which the Hindu scriptures known as the Vedas were committed to written form.

Mohenjo-daro & Harappan Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization dates to c. 7000 BCE and grew steadily throughout the lower Gangetic Valley region southwards and northwards to Malwa. The cities of this period were larger than contemporary settlements in other countries, were situated according to cardinal points, and were built of mud bricks, often kiln-fired. Houses were constructed with a large courtyard opening from the front door, a kitchen/workroom for the preparation of food, and smaller bedrooms.

Family activities seem to have centered on the front of the house, particularly the courtyard and, in this, are similar to what has been inferred from sites in Rome , Egypt, Greece , and Mesopotamia. The buildings and homes of the Indus Valley peoples, however, were far more advanced technologically with many featuring flush toilets and "wind catchers" (possibly first developed in ancient Persia ) on the rooftops which provided air conditioning. The sewer and drainage systems of the cities excavated thus far are more advanced than those of Rome at its height.

The most famous sites of this period are the great cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa both located in present-day Pakistan (Mohenjo-daro in the Sindh province and Harappa in Punjab) which was part of India until the 1947 partition of the country which created the separate nation. Harappa has given its name to the Harappan Civilization (another name for the Indus Valley Civilization) which is usually divided into Early, Middle, and Mature periods corresponding roughly to 5000-4000 BCE (Early), 4000-2900 BCE (Middle), and 2900-1900 BCE (Mature). Harappa dates from the Middle period (c. 3000 BCE) while Mohenjo-Daro was built in the Mature period (c. 2600 BCE).

Harappa's buildings were severely damaged and the site compromised in the 19th century when British workers carried away a significant amount of material for use as ballast in constructing the railroad . Prior to this time, many buildings had already been dismantled by citizens of the local village of Harappa (which gives the site its name) for use in their own projects. It is therefore now difficult to determine the historical significance of Harappa save that it is clear it was once a significant Bronze Age community with a population of as many as 30,000 people.

Mohenjo-Daro, on the other hand, is much better preserved as it lay mostly buried until 1922. The name Mohenjo-Daro means `mound of the dead' in Sindhi and was applied to the site by local people who found bones of humans and animals there, as well as ancient ceramics and other artifacts, emerging from the soil periodically. The original name of the city is unknown although various possibilities have been suggested by finds in the region, among them, the Dravidian name `Kukkutarma', the city of the cock, a possible allusion to the site now known as Mohenjo-Daro as a center of ritual cock-fighting or, perhaps, as a breeding center for cocks.

Mohenjo-Daro was an elaborately constructed city with streets laid out evenly at right angles and a sophisticated drainage system. The Great Bath, a central structure at the site, was heated and seems to have been a focal point for the community. The citizens were skilled in the use of metals such as copper , bronze , lead, and tin (as evidenced by artworks such as the bronze statue of the Dancing Girl and by individual seals) and cultivated barley, wheat, peas, sesame, and cotton. Trade was an important source of commerce and it is thought that ancient Mesopotamian texts which mention Magan and Meluhha refer to India generally or, perhaps, Mohenjo-Daro specifically. Artifacts from the Indus Valley region have been found at sites in Mesopotamia though their precise point of origin in India is not always clear.

Decline of Harappan Civilization

The people of the Harappan Civilization worshipped many gods and engaged in ritual worship. Statues of various deities (such as Indra , the god of storm and war ) have been found at many sites and, chief among them, terracotta pieces depicting the Shakti (the Mother Goddess) suggesting a popular, common worship of the feminine principle. In c. 2000 - c.1500 BCE it is thought another race, known as the Aryans , migrated into India through the Khyber Pass and assimilated into the existing culture, bringing their gods and the language of Sanskrit with them which they then introduced to the region's existing belief system. Who the Aryans were and what effect they had on the indigenous people continues to be debated but it is generally acknowledged that, at about the same time as their arrival, the Harappan culture began to decline.

Scholars cite climate change as one possible reason noting evidence of both drought and flood in the region. The Indus River is thought to have begun flooding the region more regularly (as evidenced by approximately 30 feet or 9 meters of silt at Mohenjo-Daro) and this destroyed crops and encouraged famine. It is also thought the path of the monsoon, relied upon for watering the crops, could have changed and people left the cities in the north for lands in the south. Another possibility is loss of trade relations with Mesopotamia and Egypt, their two most vital partners in commerce, as both of those regions were undergoing domestic conflicts at this same time.

Racialist writers and political philosophers of the early 20th century, following the lead of the German philologist Max Muller (l. 1823-1900), claimed the Indus Valley Civilization fell to an invasion of light-skinned Aryans but this theory has now long been discredited. Equally untenable is the theory that the people were driven south by extra-terrestrials. Among the most mysterious aspects of Mohenjo-daro is the vitrification of parts of the site as though it had been exposed to intense heat which melted the brick and stone. This same phenomenon has been observed at sites such as Traprain Law in Scotland and attributed to the results of warfare . Speculation regarding the destruction of the city by some kind of ancient atomic blast, however, (the work of aliens from other planets) is not generally regarded as credible.

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The Vedic Period

Whatever the reason for the abandonment of the cities, the period that followed the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization is known as the Vedic Period, characterized by a pastoral lifestyle and adherence to the religious texts known as The Vedas . Society became divided into four classes (the Varnas ) popularly known as 'the caste system' which were comprised of the Brahmana at the top (priests and scholars), the Kshatriya next (the warriors), the Vaishya (farmers and merchants), and the Shudra (laborers). The lowest caste was the Dalits , the untouchables, who handled meat and waste, though there is some debate over whether this class existed in antiquity.

At first, it seems this caste system was merely a reflection of one's occupation but, in time, it became more rigidly interpreted to be determined by one's birth and one was not allowed to change castes nor to marry into a caste other than one's own. This understanding was a reflection of the belief in an eternal order to human life dictated by a supreme deity.

While the religious beliefs which characterized the Vedic Period are considered much older, it was during this time that they became systematized as the religion of Sanatan Dharma ('Eternal Order') known today as Hinduism (this name deriving from the Indus (or Sindus) River where worshippers were known to gather, hence, 'Sindus', and then 'Hindus'). The underlying tenet of Sanatan Dharma is that there is an order and a purpose to the universe and human life and, by accepting this order and living in accordance with it, one will experience life as it is meant to be properly lived.

While Sanatan Dharma is considered by many a polytheistic religion consisting of many gods, it is actually monotheistic in that it holds there is one god, Brahman (the Self but also the Universe and creator of the observable universe), who, because of his greatness, cannot be fully apprehended save through the many aspects which are revealed as the different gods of the Hindu pantheon.

It is Brahman who decrees the eternal order and maintains the universe through it. This belief in an order to the universe reflects the stability of the society in which it grew and flourished as, during the Vedic Period, governments became centralized and social customs integrated fully into daily life across the region. Besides The Vedas , the great religious and literary works of the Puranas , the Mahabharata , Bhagavad -Gita , and the Ramayana all come from this period.

In the 6th century BCE, the religious reformers Vardhamana Mahavira (l. c. 599-527 BCE) and Siddhartha Gautama (l. c. 563 to c. 483 BCE) developed their own belief systems and broke away from mainstream Sanatan Dharma to eventually create their own religions of Jainism and Buddhism, respectively. These changes in religion were a part of a wider pattern of social and cultural upheaval which resulted in the formation of city-states and the rise of powerful kingdoms (such as the Magadha Kingdom under the ruler Bimbisara ) and the proliferation of philosophical schools of thought which challenged orthodox Hinduism.

Mahavira rejected the Vedas and placed the responsibility for salvation and enlightenment directly on the individual and the Buddha would later do the same. The philosophical school of Charvaka rejected all supernatural elements of religious belief and maintained that only the senses could be trusted to apprehend the truth and, further, that the greatest goal in life was pleasure and one's own enjoyment. Although Charvaka did not endure as a school of thought, it influenced the development of a new way of thinking which was more grounded, pragmatic, and eventually encouraged the adoption of empirical and scientific observation and method.

Cities also expanded during this time and the increased urbanization and wealth attracted the attention of Cyrus II (the Great, r. c. 550-530 BCE) of the Persian Achaemenid Empire (c. 550-330 BCE) who invaded India in 530 BCE and initiated a campaign of conquest in the region. Ten years later, under the reign of his son, Darius I (the Great, r. 522-486 BCE), northern India was firmly under Persian control (the regions corresponding to Afghanistan and Pakistan today) and the inhabitants of that area subject to Persian laws and customs. One consequence of this, possibly, was an assimilation of Persian and Indian religious beliefs which some scholars point to as an explanation for further religious and cultural reforms.

The Great Empires of Ancient India

Persia held dominance in northern India until the conquest of Alexander the Great in 330 BCE who marched on India after Persia had fallen. Again, foreign influences were brought to bear on the region giving rise to the Greco- Buddhist culture which impacted all areas of culture in northern India from art to religion to dress. Statues and reliefs from this period depict Buddha, and other figures, as distinctly Hellenic in dress and pose (known as the Gandhara School of Art). Following Alexander 's departure from India, the Mauryan Empire (322-185 BCE) rose under the reign of Chandragupta Maurya (r. c. 321-297 BCE) until, by the end of the third century BCE, it ruled over almost all of northern India.

Chandragupta 's son, Bindusara (r. 298-272 BCE) extended the empire throughout almost the whole of India. His son was Ashoka the Great (r. 268-232 BCE) under whose rule the empire flourished at its height. Eight years into his reign, Ashoka conquered the eastern city-state of Kalinga which resulted in a death toll numbering over 100,000. Shocked at the destruction and death, Ashoka embraced the teachings of the Buddha and embarked on a systematic program advocating Buddhist thought and principles.

He established many monasteries, gave lavishly to Buddhist communities, and is said to have erected 84,000 stupas across the land to honor the Buddha. In 249 BCE, on pilgrimage to sites associated with the Buddha's life, he formally established the village of Lumbini as Buddha's birthplace, erecting a pillar there, and commissioned the creation of his famous Edicts of Ashoka to encourage Buddhist thought and values. Prior to Ashoka's reign, Buddhism was a small sect struggling to gain adherents. After Ashoka sent missionaries to foreign countries carrying the Buddhist vision, the small sect began to grow into the major religion it is today.

The Mauryan Empire declined and fell after Ashoka's death and the country splintered into many small kingdoms and empires (such as the Kushan Empire) in what has come to be called the Middle Period. This era saw the increase of trade with Rome (which had begun c. 130 BCE) following Augustus Caesar 's incorporation of Egypt into the newly established Roman Empire in 30 BCE. Rome now became India's primary partner in trade as the Romans also had already annexed much of Mesopotamia. This was a time of individual and cultural development in the various kingdoms which finally flourished in what is considered the Golden Age of India under the reign of the Gupta Empire (320-550 CE).

The Gupta Empire is thought to have been founded by one Sri Gupta (`Sri' means `Lord') who probably ruled between 240-280 CE. As Sri Gupta is thought to have been of the Vaishya (merchant) class, his rise to power in defiance of the caste system is unprecedented. He laid the foundation for the government which would so stabilize India that virtually every aspect of culture reached its height under the reign of the Guptas. Philosophy , literature , science, mathematics, architecture , astronomy, technology, art, engineering, religion, and astronomy, among other fields, all flourished during this period, resulting in some of the greatest of human achievements.

The Puranas of Vyasa were compiled during this period and the famous caves of Ajanta and Ellora, with their elaborate carvings and vaulted rooms, were also begun. Kalidasa the poet and playwright wrote his masterpiece Shakuntala and the Kamasutra was also written, or compiled from earlier works, by Vatsyayana. Varahamihira explored astronomy at the same time as Aryabhatta, the mathematician, made his own discoveries in the field and also recognized the importance of the concept of zero, which he is credited with inventing. As the founder of the Gupta Empire defied orthodox Hindu thought, it is not surprising that the Gupta rulers advocated and propagated Buddhism as the national belief and this is the reason for the plentitude of Buddhist works of art, as opposed to Hindu, at sites such as Ajanta and Ellora.

The Decline of Empire & the Coming of Islam

The empire declined slowly under a succession of weak rulers until it collapsed around 550 CE. The Gupta Empire was then replaced by the rule of Harshavardhan (590-647 CE) who ruled the region for 42 years. A literary man of considerable accomplishments (he authored three plays in addition to other works) Harsha was a patron of the arts and a devout Buddhist who forbade the killing of animals in his kingdom but recognized the necessity to sometimes kill humans in battle .

He was a highly skilled military tactician who was only defeated in the field once in his life. Under his reign, the north of India flourished but his kingdom collapsed following his death. The invasion of the Huns had been repeatedly repelled by the Guptas and then by Harshavardhan but, with the fall of his kingdom, India fell into chaos and fragmented into small kingdoms lacking the unity necessary to fight off invading forces.

In 712 CE the Muslim general Muhammed bin Quasim conquered northern India, establishing himself in the region of modern-day Pakistan. The Muslim invasion saw an end to the indigenous empires of India and, from then on, independent city-states or communities under the control of a city would be the standard model of government. The Islamic Sultanates rose in the region of modern-day Pakistan and spread north-west.

The disparate world views of the religions which now contested each other for acceptance in the region and the diversity of languages spoken, made the unity and cultural advances, such as were seen in the time of the Guptas, difficult to reproduce. Consequently, the region was easily conquered by the Islamic Mughal Empire. India would then remain subject to various foreign influences and powers (among them the Portuguese, the French, and the British) until finally winning its independence in 1947.

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Bibliography

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• Keay, J. India: A History. Grove Press, 2010.
• Koller, J. M. Asian Philosophies. Prentice Hall, 2007.
• Kulke, H. & Rothermund, D. A History of India. Barnes & Noble Books, 2008.
• Long, J. D. Historical Dictionary of Hinduism. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2010.
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Mark, Joshua J.. " Ancient India ." World History Encyclopedia . Last modified November 13, 2012. https://www.worldhistory.org/india/.

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Traditional approaches to Indian historiography

Trends in early indian society.

• Early Vedic period
• Later Vedic period (c. 800–c. 500 bce )
• Political systems
• Magadhan ascendancy
• Campaigns of Alexander the Great
• Chandragupta Maurya
• Ashoka and his successors
• Financial base for the empire
• Mauryan society
• Mauryan government
• Ashoka’s edicts
• Mauryan decline
• The concept of the state
• Indo-Greek rulers
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• The Shunga kingdom
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• Southern Indian kingdoms
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• Religious patronage
• Assimilation of foreigners
• Successor states
• Southern India
• Society and culture
• The tripartite struggle
• The Rajputs
• The coming of the Turks
• The Hoysalas and Pandyas
• The economy
• Social mobility
• Literature and the arts
• The Turkish conquest
• The early Turkish sultans
• Consolidation of the sultanate
• The Khaljīs
• Centralization and expansion
• Taxation and distribution of revenue resources
• Expansion and conquests
• The urban economy
• The Tughluqs
• Reversal and rebellion
• Society and the state under the Tughluqs
• Decline of the sultanate
• The rise of regional states
• Struggle for supremacy in northern India
• Bahmanī consolidation of the Deccan
• External and internal rivalries
• Vizierate of Maḥmūd Gāwān
• Bahmanī decline
• Successors to the Bahmanī
• Consolidation
• Wars and rivalries
• Decentralization and loss of territory
• Reconsolidation
• Growth of power
• Renewed decentralization
• Relations with the Muslim states
• Military policies
• Loss of central control
• Breakup of the empire
• Administration of the empire
• The significance of Mughal rule
• Conquest of Hindustan
• Bābur’s achievements
• Sher Shah and his successors
• Restoration of Humāyūn
• The early years
• Struggle for firm personal control
• Subjugation of Rajasthan
• Conquest of Gujarat and Bengal
• The frontiers
• Central, provincial, and local government
• The composition of the Mughal nobility
• Organization of the nobility and the army
• Revenue system
• Fiscal administration
• Evolution of a nonsectarian state
• Akbar in historical perspective
• Loss of Kandahār
• Submission of Mewar
• Developments in the Deccan
• Rebellion of Khurram (Shah Jahān)
• Mahābat Khan’s coup
• The Deccan problem
• Central Asian policy
• War of succession
• Local and peasant uprisings
• Assessment of Aurangzeb
• The Sikh uprisings
• Cracks in the core
• Struggle for a new power center
• The emperor, the nobility, and the provinces
• Nādir Shah’s invasion
• The Afghan-Maratha struggle for northern India
• Political and economic decentralization during the Mughal decline
• Early history
• Rise of the peshwa s
• Subordinate Maratha rulers
• The case of Mysore
• Challenge from the northwest
• The Afghan factor in northern India, 1747–72
• From Banda Singh Bahadur to Ranjit Singh
• Rajasthan in the 18th century
• The south: Travancore and Mysore
• Politics and the economy
• Cultural aspects of the late precolonial order
• The Portuguese
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• The Anglo-French struggle, 1740–63
• European military superiority
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• The Company Bahadur
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• Jallianwala Bagh massacre
• Gandhi’s strategy
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• Government and politics
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• The 1965 war with Pakistan
• Indira Gandhi’s impact
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• V.P. Singh’s coalition—its brief rise and fall
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The European scholars who reconstructed early Indian history in the 19th century regarded it as essentially static and Indian society as concerned only with things spiritual. Indologists, such as the German Max Müller , relied heavily on the Sanskritic tradition and saw Indian society as an idyllic village culture emphasizing qualities of passivity, meditation, and otherworldliness. In sharp contrast was the approach of the Scottish historian James Mill and the Utilitarians , who condemned Indian culture as irrational and inimical to human progress. Mill first formulated a periodization of Indian history into Hindu, Muslim, and British periods, a scheme that, while still commonly used, is now controversial. During the 19th century, direct contact with Indian institutions through administration, together with the utilization of new evidence from recently deciphered inscriptions, numismatics, and local archives, provided fresh insights. Nationalist Indian historians of the early 20th century tended to exaggerate the glory of the past but nevertheless introduced controversy into historical interpretation, which in turn resulted in more precise studies of Indian institutions. In more recent times, historians have reconstructed in greater detail the social, economic, and cultural history of the subcontinent—though politics has continued to influence the study of Indian history.

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A major change in the interpretation of Indian history has been a questioning of an older notion of Oriental despotism as the determining force. Arising out of a traditional European perspective on Asia , this image of despotism grew to vast proportions in the 19th century and provided an intellectual justification for colonialism and imperialism. Its deterministic assumptions clouded the understanding of early interrelationships among Indian political forms, economic patterns, and social structures.

A considerable change is noticeable during this period in the role of institutions. Clan-based societies had assemblies, whose political role changed with the transformation of tribe into state and with oligarchic and monarchical governments. Centralized imperialism, which was attempted under the Mauryan empire (c. 325–185 bce ), gave way gradually to decentralized administration and to what has been called a feudalistic pattern in the post-Gupta period—i.e., from the 7th century ce . Although the village as an administrative and social unit remained constant, its relationship with the mainstream of history varied. The concept of divine kingship was known but rarely taken seriously, the claim to the status of the caste of royalty becoming more important. Because conformity to the social order had precedence over allegiance to the state, the idea of representation found expression not so much in political institutions as in caste and village assemblies. The pendulum of politics swung from large to small kingdoms, with the former attempting to establish empires—the sole successful attempt being that of the Mauryan dynasty . Thus, true centralization was rare, because local forces often determined historical events. Although imperial or near-imperial periods were marked by attempts at the evolution of uniform cultures , the periods of smaller kingdoms (often referred to as the Dark Ages by earlier historians) were more creative at the local level and witnessed significant changes in society and religion. These small kingdoms also often boasted the most elaborate and impressive monuments.

The major economic patterns were those relating to land and to commerce. The transition from tribal to peasant society was a continuing process, with the gradual clearing of wasteland and the expansion of the village economy based on plow agriculture. Recognition of the importance of land revenue coincided with the emergence of the imperial system in the 4th century bce ; and from this period onward, although the imperial structure did not last long, land revenue became central to the administration and income of the state. Frequent mentions of individual ownership, references to crown lands, numerous land grants to religious and secular grantees in the post-Gupta period, and detailed discussion in legal sources of the rights of purchase, bequest , and sale of land all clearly indicate that private ownership of land existed. Much emphasis has been laid on the state control of the irrigation system; yet a systematic study of irrigation in India reveals that it was generally privately controlled and that it serviced small areas of land. ( See hydraulic civilization .) When the state built canals , they were mainly in the areas affected by both the winter and summer monsoons, in which village assemblies played a dominant part in revenue and general administration, as, for example, in the Cola (Chola) kingdom of southern India.

The urban economy was crucial to the rise of civilization in the Indus valley (c. 2600–2000 bce ). Later the 1st millennium bce saw an urban civilization in the Ganges (Ganga) valley and still later in coastal south India. The emergence of towns was based on administrative needs, the requirements of trade, and pilgrimage centers. In the 1st millennium ce , when commerce expanded to include trade with western Asia, the eastern Mediterranean, and Central and Southeast Asia , revenue from trade contributed substantially to the economies of the participating kingdoms, as indeed Indian religion and culture played a significant part in the cultural evolution of Central and Southeast Asia. Gold coins were issued for the first time by the Kushan dynasty and in large quantity by the Guptas ; both kingdoms were active in foreign trade . Gold was imported from Central Asia and the Roman Republic and Empire and later perhaps from eastern Africa because, in spite of India’s recurring association with gold, its sources were limited. Expanding trade encouraged the opening up of new routes, and this, coupled with the expanding village economy, led to a marked increase of knowledge about the subcontinent during the post-Mauryan period. With increasing trade, guilds became more powerful in the towns. Members of the guilds participated in the administration, were associated with politics, and controlled the development of trade through merchant embassies sent to places as far afield as Rome and China . Not least, guilds and merchant associations held envied and respectable positions as donors of religious institutions.

The structure of Indian society was characterized by caste . The distinguishing features of a caste society were endogamous kinship groups ( jati s) arranged in a hierarchy of ritual ranking, based on notions of pollution and purity, with an intermeshing of service relationships and an adherence to geographic location. There was some coincidence between caste and access to economic resources. Although ritual hierarchy was unchanging, there appears to have been mobility within the framework. Migrations of peoples both within the subcontinent and from outside encouraged social mobility and change. The nucleus of the social structure was the family, with the pattern of kinship relations varying from region to region. In the more complex urban structure, occupational guilds occasionally took on jati functions, and there was a continual emergence of new social and professional groups.

Religion in early Indian history did not constitute a monolithic force. Even when the royalty attempted to encourage certain religions, the idea of a state religion was absent. In the main, there were three levels of religious expression. The most widespread was the worship of local cult deities vaguely associated with major deities, as seen in fertility cults , in the worship of mother goddesses , in the Shakta-Shakti cult, and in Tantrism. ( See Shaktism .) Less widespread but popular, particularly in the urban areas, were the more puritanical sects of Buddhism and Jainism and the bhakti tradition of Hinduism . A third level included classical Hinduism and more abstract levels of Buddhism and Jainism, with an emphasis on the major deities in the case of the first and on the teachings of the founders in the case of the latter two. It was this level, endorsed by affluent patronage, that provided the base for the initial institutionalization of religion. But the three levels were not isolated; the shadow of the third fell over the first two, the more homely rituals and beliefs of which often crept into the third. This was the case particularly with Hinduism, the very flexibility of which was largely responsible for its survival. Forms of Buddhism, ranging from an emphasis on the constant refinement of doctrine on the one hand to an incorporation of magical fertility cults in its beliefs on the other, faded out toward the end of this period.

Sanskrit literature and the building of Hindu and Buddhist temples and sculpture both reached apogees in this period. Although literary works in the Sanskrit language continued to be written and temples were built in later periods, the achievement was never again as inspiring.

From c. 1500 to c. 500 bce

By about 1500 bce an important change began to occur in the northern half of the Indian subcontinent . The Indus civilization had declined by about 2000 bce (or perhaps as late as 1750 bce ), and the stage was being set for a second and more lasting urbanization in the Ganges valley. The new areas of occupation were contiguous with and sometimes overlapping the core of the Harappan area. There was continuity of occupation in the Punjab and Gujarat , and a new thrust toward urbanization came from the migration of peoples from the Punjab into the Ganges valley.

The History of India Since 1900 Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

Works cited.

In the beginning of 1900, India was ruled by British Empire and it attained independent in 1947. In most parts of the 19 th century, India was under the rule of British. India was taken as the core of the British Empire and Queen Victoria was created as Empress of India. The main British military was deployed in India and this made Indian citizens to have no powers in local and central government and they had less authority in policy and decision-making.

Indian National Conference (INC) was established in 1884 by some of the learned Indians and they intended to obtain greater authority in the way India was ruled (Blackwell 56). In return to this progress, there was establishment of the Morley-Minto reforms in 1909 and Morley was then the Secretary of State for India.

Das (6) contended that in 1850, Indian population was merely 500 million heads. By 1900, there was increase in population to around 1.5 billion heads and was increasing very fast, to around 3.2 billion in the year 1965. The population was increasing within a shorter time and this rapid population increase was mostly due to a reducing death rate, which was faster than birth rate and especially a raise in average people age.

In 2000, the number of people in India was reported to have reached around six billion people. However, the growth in population began to reduce after 1965 due to reducing birth rates (Hiralal 28). This paper would discuss the transformations in India since 1900 including the British Empire, economy and population change in India.

British Empire in India

After 1919, nationalism in India strengthened and this was because of the following reasons (Blunt 431):

• Several learned people in India were not really pleased with the Morley-Minto reforms. British still ruled India and they did not reduce their powers or raise the Indians authority in the government. The INC aimed for more powers in their country.
• Woodrow Wilson had inspired the minds of several Indian nationals with his consideration of national independence; i.e. citizens of a country to have powers to rule themselves.

The entire idea of national independence destabilized the crucial concept of the British Empire where the British ruled this empire or individuals chosen by the British to perform the same. For national independence to function completely, India was supposed to be ruled by the Indian nationals residing there. In the beginning of 1919, there was implementation of the Government of India Act and this helped in introduction of national parliament (Chandrasekhar 169).

Around five million of the richest and influential Indian nationals were offered the right to vote which was a very minimal ratio of the sum population. Central government, ministry of education, and some civil positions were governed by Indian citizens. However, the British managed the entire central authority and British retained the core positions, such as tax and law and order posts, in the provincial government.

Lord Birkenhead, 1924 to 1928, was fully opposing the concept of self-governance and this made very hard for Indians to obtain self-governance (Chandrasekhar 169). Three influential men, Jawaharlal Nehru, Mahatma Gandhi, and Muhammed Jinnah, created a major impact on the Indian government where they fought for self-rule. Gandhi influenced most of his supporters to employ non-violent demonstration.

They used sit-down strikes, declined to work, declined to pay for government taxes, and so forth. Most of the Indians desired to use more extreme means and in the section of 1919 Government of India Act declared that a body would be formed after ten years to examine if India should have the desired self-governance (Blunt 432). The commission initially met in 1928 which was called the Simon Commission.

There were implementation of the Government of India Act in 1935 and that time the British had founded national Government and development were created over India just since Stanley Baldwin, who was the Tory leader and head of labor, Ramsey-MacDonald, decided on a mutual way of action and Winston Churchill was resentfully in contrary to this (Hiralal 28). This Act brought in elected Indian leaders to have powers in most sections apart from foreign affairs and defense.

It also introduced the 11 provincial assemblies which were intended to have valuable full powers over local government. Indians citizens were not pleased with this since the Act did not facilitate authority status and British authority was permitted to manage their own defense and foreign affairs. Also some off the princes were governing some parts of India still declined to associate with the provincial assemblies hence the second section of the Act was insignificant (Blackwell 56).

The key failure of the Act was that it disregarded the religious opposition between the Hindus and Muslims. Almost 60% of the Indian nationals were Hindus and this made Muslims to fear that they will not be treated equally in a self-governing and democratic India. There were provincial elections in 1937 and Hindus won eight out of 11 provinces (Levie 96).

The Muslim League under Jinnah insisted for their province to be named Pakistan. These competitions between the Muslims and Hindus had greater impact on the Indian progress. World War Two put on hold the Indian matter – although momentarily. The Indians presented significant military assistance in the struggle against Japan in particular in the movement in Burma. The British assured power positions for Indians once the battle had finished.

The religious enmity within India was intensifying and this created any possible solution extremely hard. Efforts to put together a cooperate constitution which satisfied both religious opponents were unsuccessful. The British intention was to permit the provincial authority broad powers at the same time as central government would simply have the partial rules (Robertaon 218).

The Labor government placed its belief in the expectation that many Muslims resided in one or two provinces and that the authority in the two provinces should consider this in policy making. If this arrangement functions, the demand for a separate province for Muslim would not be necessary.

Nehru was requested to create a temporary government by the Governor-General of India and the Governor General expected that the information of this government could be reformed afterward; however he expected that the formation of full government led by Indian citizens would satisfy most of the people.

There were inclusion of two Muslims in Nehru cabinet but it was not efficient in preventing violence. Jinnah was persuaded that Nehru might not be relied on and he requested all the Muslims to pursue a direct action to attain a self-rule Muslim nation. Violence started and more that 6000 people died in Calcutta and there were civil war in India (Levie 97).

In the beginning of 1947, Atlee stated that British would go back to Britain before mid 1948 and another viceroy, Mountbatten, was chosen and he stated that peace might be simply be attained if partition was implemented. The Hindu Assembly had the same opinion with him.

Mountbatten became persuaded that whichever holdup might raise violence and he announced that the British would leave the country in August 1947. In August 1947, there was signing of the Indian Independence Act and this helped in dividing the Muslim major regions from India to form the self-rule nation of Pakistan. However, the Act was very hard to implement (Levie 96).

Indian Transformations

Indian is famous in architecture and they have the great architects which have inspired most of the countries and societies. This architect has originated from ancient society and it continues to the modern structures. Indian architecture includes broad series of geographically and traditionally broadens systems and was changed by the history of the state of India.

These transformations have led to series of architecture inventions which, even though it is hard to recognize a particular representative approach, nevertheless maintains a particular sum of permanence across history. The multiplicity of Indian society is symbolized in its architecture. It is a mixture of prehistoric and diverse local traditions, with construction forms, kinds, and technologies from Western and some parts of Asia along with Europe.

The Indian transformations as from independence appear to be in flagrant opposition with conventional Western theories of economic growth. The concept of Arthur Lewis on the transition from a 6% to a 12% saving investment rate being the necessity of the growth of economy and the two-gap method has satisfied huge inflows of international legislative or private investment (Das 5).

Examination on the economy in 1900 to 1975 reported that a huge growth rate in companies is to be established merely when its conditions of trade relative to agriculture are not extremely below their long-term standard level.

Most of the people found themselves on the worst part of frontiers particularly in the combined provinces of Bengal and Punjab. Many people migrated to new frontiers where the Muslims moved to newly established Pakistan and the Hindus migrated to India. However, some regions where the groups met experienced violence.

In Punjab, around 300,000 people were killed in religious violence. Violence reduced in the end of 1947 but in the beginning of 1948, there was assassination of Gandhi by a Hindu. This intensified the hatred between the Hindu and Muslim and created a huge instability in both states.

The real wages in the sector of agriculture have risen since 1900, while in major companies these may have risen by minimal margin in many years after independence. There is considerable increase in public fixed investments since 1950s, however once suitable modifications are created this intention is observed to be not relatively applicable (Das 5).

Their style of architect includes post-modern, modern, western classical and Islamic. This architecture styles have been changing since 1900s and some of the ancient styles have been maintained in India. Various transformations have been seen in India since independence and even the population is more rapidly increasing the current population of 6 million.

Blackwell, F. India:a global studies handbook. Santa Barbara: CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 2004. Print.

Reason: This book has a lot of information about India and it explains many things that I need to understand and then use it in my paper.

Blunt, Alison. “Imperial Geographies of Home: British Domesticity in India, 1886-1925.” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, New Series 24.4 (1999): 421-440. Print.

Reason: An important time in the Indian history, when England took over India and how these events affected the Indian history.

Chandrasekhar, S. “Population Pressure in India.” Pacific Affairs 16.2 (1943): 168-184. Print.

Reason: This article was written in the middle of the last century, and I need to use some statistic in my paper.

Das, Gurcharan. “The India Model.” Foreign Affairs 85.4 (2006): 2-16. Print.

Reason: This article focuses on the economy in India and I need to write about the Indian economy.

Hiralal, Kalpana. “Indian Family Businesses in Natal, 1870– 1950.” Natalia 38.4 (2008): 27-37. Print.

The introduction of ‘passenger Indians’ in the region of Natal from the 1870s indicated a fresh age in colonial history. This is extensively e4xplained in this book where he described the foundations of the Indian commercial status in the imperial era.

Levie, Howard S. “The Indo-Pakistani Agreement of August 28, 1973.” The American Journal of International Law 68.1 (1974): 95-97. Print.

Reason: I need to write about the conflict between India and Pakistan during last century.

Robertaon, S. “Politics and Religion in India: An Analysis.” Asia Journal of Theology 23.2 (October 2009): 217-243. Web.

Reason: India has many religions and an article like this will help me when writing my paper.

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History of India’s Independence

Over the course of history, India has faced several invasions. While most of the invaders made their intentions clear right from the word go, the British managed to bring India under their control through a business venture. It all started with the British East India Company, which started off as a mere joint-stock company, but slowly went about spreading its wings and influence, before the British government finally took control of the entire country. 

The British company had landed in India in the early seventeenth century as traders, but began interfering in Indian affairs around 1750s. After the battle of Plassey (1757), it began to transform from a trading company to a ruling force. As the British began to spread their tentacles over a large part of India, the exploitation of local resources and people began in full force. The British were concerned just about consolidating their rule and power. 

The British rule had a damaging effect on the social, economic, cultural and political life of Indians, which gradually forced common masses and rulers to rise in revolt against the British rule. Several agrarian, tribal, and political rebellions broke out against the foreign rule, but it was the rebellion of 1857, which proved as a launch pad for all the subsequent struggles against the British rule. 

The continuously increasing awareness, contact with the outside world, and the urge to free the motherland, gave rise to an organized movement by the end of the nineteenth century, which uprooted the 200-year-old British rule in 1947.

The History of British Colonialism in India 

After the fall of the Mughal Empire, the British gained the support of many local rulers by offering them help against their adversaries. Since the British were equipped with huge cannons and newer war technology their support proved helpful to many Indian rulers. In exchange for their support, the East India Company managed to set up trading centers in places like Madras, Calcutta and Bombay. The British gradually started to extend their fortification. When they were asked to stop their extension by Siraj-ud-daulah, the Nawab of Bengal, they defeated him in the Battle of Plassey (1757). This win against Siraj-ud-daulah played a crucial role in colonizing the whole of India.      

Early Rebellions Against the British Rule

For their short-term benefit, many Indian rulers supported the British colonization in India, but many of them opposed the idea of foreign rule. This created a conflict between Indian rulers, which was further used by the British to their advantage. Among the early rebellion, South Indian rulers, such as Puli Thevar, Hyder Ali, Tipu Sultan, Pazhassi Raja, Rani Velu Nachiyar, Veerapandiya Kattabomman, Dheeran Chinnamalai, Maruthu Pandiyar, etc. revolted against the British and fought several wars and battles. 

Many rulers like Hyder Ali and Dheeran Chinnamalai sought the help of Maratha rulers in their fight against the British. 

Agitated by the ill-impact of the British rule on the social, cultural, tribal, and economic fabric of society, many individuals like Sidhu Murmu, Kanhu Murmu and Tilka Manjhi stood up against the British colonization. 

While the British managed to defeat bigger ruler like Tipu Sultan via local alliances (supporting one ruler against the other), they did not have must difficulty in suppressing local agrarian and tribal rebellions. The British not only used better weapons, but they also resorted to devious tactics like the ‘divide and rule policy’ in to consolidate their rule and might.             

Even though the British tried their best to suppress rebellions across India, these revolts would not stop as the British not only subjected people to a foreign rule but also exploited people economically.

The Revolt of 1857

Often referred to as the ‘First War of Indian Independence,’ the revolt of 1857 was the result of a series of incidents, but the immediate reason for the revolt was the issue of ‘greased cartridges.’ The East India Company mistreated the Indian soldiers and discriminated between the Indian and the European soldiers. While the soldiers knew that the British were using factors like religion and caste against them, the news of the newly introduced Enfield P-53 rifles using cartridges made out of fat extracted from beef and pork sparked a widespread rebellion against the British. Since the soldiers had to bite the cartridge in order to load the rifle, it did not go down well with the Hindu and Muslim soldiers as it hurt their religious belief. Since consuming beef and pork is against the religious beliefs of Hindus and Muslims respectively, the allegation convinced Indian soldiers that the British were trying to convert them into Christians. 

This, along with many other factors, played a crucial role in the revolt of the soldiers. Many Indian rulers from different states followed suit and locked horns with the British. At the end of it all, at least 800,000 people, including many civilians, were killed. As a result of the rebellion, the British government took control of the administration of India from the East India Company.

Organized Movements

The revolt of 1857 was the first large-scale rebellion against the British rule, and inspired the future generation to fight for the independence of the motherland. Slowly and gradually many organizations were formed that started to demand for some sort of self-governance and rights for Indians. 

In 1867, Dadabhai Naoroji founded the East India Association, while Surendranath Banerjee came up with the Indian National Association in 1876. 

With more and more people coming up with the demand for more rights, several prominent people came forward and decided to form a platform that will demand for self rights and self governance. It led to the formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885.

Since the British failed to grant even the moderate demands set by the Congress, many Indians started questioning the moderate leaders of the Congress, and advocated more radical approach in dealing with the British, which gave rise to several revolutionary organizations that advocated use of force and violence. 

Works done by socio-religious groups like Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj played a crucial role in creating awareness among Indians. The works of reformers like Swami Vivekananda, Rabindranath Tagore, V. O. Chidambaram Pillai and Subramanya Bharathy evoked a sense of nationalism among Indians.

The Rise of Nationalism

Radical leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak straightway pushed for self-rule for Indians. Tilak was also saddened by the fact that the education system of the British government did not portray India’s history and culture in a positive light. He advocated complete freedom (Swaraj) and managed to inspire many Indians with his famous slogan, “Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it.” He was joined by other like-minded leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai. The trio together came to be known as ‘Lal-Bal-Pal,’ but they were expelled from the Congress for advocating violence and disorder. However, they had done enough to instill nationalism into the minds of thousands of Indians. 

The Partition of Bengal

Since pre-independent Bengal was as big as France in terms of its geography, the then Viceroy and Governor-General, Lord Curzon, ordered the partition of Bengal in 1905. He argued that the partition would lead to a better administration and ease the rising conflict between the Hindus and the Muslims. 

The Indian nationalists, however, believed that the move was an attempt to slow down the momentum gathered by the recent nationalist movements. They also believed that Lord Curzon was employing the divide and rule policy to create a rift between Hindus and Muslims. This led to a large-scale protest against the British rule, including boycotting British products and publications of several rebellious newspapers and articles. The government was eventually forced to reunite Bengal in 1911. But a new partition, based on the languages spoken, was created soon after. The partition of Bengal left an indelible mark on the people and political scenario of Bengal. 

The Rise of the Muslim League

In 1886, Syed Ahmed Khan, an Islamic reformist and philosopher, founded the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference. The conference was set-up in an attempt to provide quality education to Indian Muslims. The conference organized annual meetings to discuss various methods to improve the quality of education, among other things. In 1906, during the 20th session of the conference, the members decided to set up a political party called the ‘All India Muslim League.’ After the creation of the All India Muslim League, the party strived towards achieving equal civil rights for the Muslim population in India. Slowly and gradually, the Muslim league started to propagate the theory that the Indian National Congress was a pro-Hindu outfit, and that the political party was incapable of ensuring equal rights for the Muslim community in India. This belief found many takers, and slowly and gradually more and more Muslim leaders started contemplating the idea of creating another political entity where Muslims would form the majority.

National Movement & the First World War

The national movement started picking-up at the end of the nineteenth century and by the turn of the new century it had gathered a critical mass, which would propel it further in the coming years. More and more people were joining hands with nationalist leaders and the Congress to raise the demand of self-rule. Led by leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and V. O. Chidambaram Pillai, more and more commoners began to protest against the British government. 

Though the Indian National Congress was still advocating the importance of the British rule, people had begun to participate in mass movements, which inspired others as well. Meanwhile, just before the beginning of the First World War, the British government had promised special benefits to India in return for their support during the First World War. As many as 1.3 million Indian soldiers were sent to places like the Middle East, Europe and Africa to fight for the British in the First World War. Also, many individual rulers of different princely states supported the British by sending large supplies of money, food and ammunition. 

The Arrival of Mahatma Gandhi

Gandhi had mastered the methods of civil disobedience through non-violent means in South Africa, where he worked as a barrister. In 1914, many political prisoners were freed by General Jan Smuts, thanks to Gandhi's non-violent protests. Impressed by his methods, a prominent leader of the Indian National Congress Gopal Krishna Gokhale requested Gandhi to return to India and join the national movement. Upon his arrival, Gandhi joined the Indian National Congress and accepted Gopal Krishna Gokhale as his mentor. He then went on to establish Satyagraha ashram and led a Satyagraha campaign in 1917. For the next three years, Gandhiji led many non-violent protests that included Satyagraha and fasting. The Kheda Satyagraha and the Champaran satyagraha were some of the early movements where he applied the concept of Satygraha to fight for the rights of farmers and other peasants.

The Non-Cooperation Movement

In 1919, Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer ordered to shoot at a peaceful gathering of men, women and children in Jallianwala Bagh, who had gathered to celebrate Baisakhi and to condemn the arrest of Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Satya Pal. This inhuman act of the British sent shockwaves across India, and received strong criticism and protests all over India. Mahatma Gandhi too denounced this cowardly behavior and strongly condemned it. 

The national movement was slowly building-up and the Jallianwalah Bagh incident played an important role in the start of the ‘Non-cooperation Movement.’ It was the first big Satyagraha movement under Gandhi’s leadership. He requested the support of other political and religious leaders and gave a call to Indians to stop using British products. 

Gandhiji advocated the use of Khadi over British textiles. He also asked government servants to quit their jobs, and return the British titles and honors. Many Indians refused to pay taxes and many teachers and lawyers gave up their respective profession. The non-co-operation movement became a huge success throughout India until it was called off by Gandhiji in the wake of the Chauri Chaura incident, in which three civilians and 22 policemen were killed.   

The Non-cooperation movement had seen an unprecedented and large-scale participation from the people of all regions and status. The entire country was transformed into a different zone and the protests were largely successful, but the unfortunate incident at Chauri Chaura forced Gandhi to call the movement off. He said that people were still not ready for mass-movements of this nature. 

The decision to call-off the non-cooperation movement left many disappointed and was criticized by several leaders.

Revolutionary Movement & its Role in Freedom Movement

While the Indian National Congress, led by leaders like Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Mahatma Gandhi, advocated civil disobedience and non-violent protests, many firebrand leaders believed in overthrowing the British with the use of force. The revolutionary movement had begun as early as the late 1750s, but it was during the Partition of Bengal that it began to take shape. Under the leadership of Barin Ghosh, many revolutionaries began to collect arms and explosives. They even started manufacturing bombs and some were even sent to foreign countries to acquire knowledge about bomb-making and other military training. 

By 1924, Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) was formed and firebrand revolutionaries like Chandrashekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, Ashfaqullah Khan, Ramprasad Bismil, Shivaram Rajguru, Surya Sen, etc. began to involve themselves in various revolutionary activities. Some of the famous revolutionary activities include Alipore bomb conspiracy, Chittagong armoury raid, Kakori train robbery, Delhi-Lahore conspiracy case, etc.

Azand Hind Fauz

Subhas Chandra Bose quit the Indian National Congress and travelled to many countries to seek help for India’s independence. Bose wanted to raise an Indian army to fight against the British. Based on Hitler’s advice, he went to Japan and formed the Indian National Army (Azad Hind Government). During the Second World War, the Indian National Army managed to capture Andaman and Nicobar islands with the help of the Japanese army. However, the setback to Japan in the Second World War impacted the prospects of the INA as well and it’s march was blocked on the Border and many soldiers and officers were arrested.

Quit India Movement

As the World War II progressed, Mahatma Gandhi intensified his protests for the complete independence of India. He drafted a resolution calling for the British to Quit India. The 'Quit India Movement' or the 'Bharat Chhodo Andolan' was the most aggressive movement launched by the Indian National Congress. Gandhi was arrested on 9th August 1942, and was held for two years at the Aga Khan Palace in Pune. The Quit India Movement came to an end by the end of 1943, when the British gave hints that complete power would be transferred to the people of India. Gandhi called off the movement which resulted in the release of 100,000 political prisoners.

Partition & Independence of India

Though prominent leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru were not willing to accept the formula of partition based on religion, but communal clashes between religious groups hastened the creation of Pakistan. The independence cum partition proposal offered by the British Cabinet Mission in 1946 was accepted by the Congress. Sardar Patel convinced Gandhi that it was the only way to avoid civil war and the Mahatma reluctantly gave his consent. The British Parliament passed the famous Indian Independence Act 1947, and on August 14, Pakistan was declared a free nation. Few minutes later at 12:02 am, India became a democratic nation, much to the joy and relief of the entire Indian subcontinent. 

After India's independence, Gandhiji focused on peace and unity among the Hindus and Muslims. He began a fast-unto-death in Delhi, asking for all communal violence to be stopped and the payment of Rs. 55 crores, as per the Partition Council agreement, to be made to Pakistan. Ultimately, all political leaders conceded to his wishes. 

The Constituent Assembly was given the responsibility of creating the constitution. Headed by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949. On 26 January 1950, the Constitution of India came into effect.

History Essay Sample: Indian History and Culture

16 February, 2020

12 minutes read

Author:  Richard Pircher

This Essay Sample was written by Handmade Writing Team.

Culture is basically defined as the totality of arts and other various manifestations of human intellectual achievements regarded in a collective manner. Culture is an idea, a value, a belief any particular civilization holds closely to its roots or foundation at any given period in time. It is generalized as a “State of Mind”.

It is the way we interact with one another, the way we behave and react to our environment and certain other things. Culture interprets the manner in which a society perceives abstract entities and by which such a society is perceived. It is established as the diverse manifestations resulting from the basic principles, behaviors and ethics of a specific group of individuals.

To limit the definition of the word “Culture” to the above stated few lines would be doing great injustice to a concept that is a system which encompasses the totality of everything we have come to know today. It is a systematic emancipation, which continuously and consistently absorbs and passes back to society, all that is initiated by different religions, beliefs and races, who are in extremely close proximity with one another, giving the cultural concept a new dimension and meaning as time proceeds.

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Culture is an integration of diverse entities, music, family, social norms, fashion, food and attitude. It is an existing, vibrant and ever-changing activity which completely takes over and absorbs our way of life in any certain period of time. This is what generates the whole visual perception, or picture of the social and psychological fabric of society.

The Indian culture, a majority of historians would confirm is one of the richest, most dynamic and intriguing cultural heritages ever to be known by man. India is blessed with such a rich cultural tradition. There is such a delightful and balanced blend of philosophy, art and religion within the context of Indian culture and history. Each entity is so aesthetically interwoven in the values and fabric of the Indian way of life, customs, thought and values that they are inseparable.

The Indian culture is fundamentally a result of a never-ending synthesis that has taken in a variety of numerous superficial influences in the advancement of its journey through time and history (Aurobindo, 20). The first evidence of civilization took place among the Indian people some four thousand years prior to the birth of Christ.

Unarguably, one of, if not the oldest of traditions, the Indians have been exposed to a series of never-ending, uninterrupted and unbroken sequences of civilizations. Yet, the flexibility and dynamism of the Indian cultural heritage has enabled its people survive these alien invasions and still significantly hold on to the traditions and originality even after it had inculcated the most beneficial of these outside influences.

The Indians by nature possess a submissive mental attitude towards culture or tradition, born out of a philosophical doctrine that all events are predetermined in advance for all time and human beings are powerless to its inevitability. Thus, the Indian mind has assimilated, to a rather large extent, the context of the diverse cultures, hence the wealthy heritage and uniqueness. Today, it is that buoyant uniqueness that attracts the western world to the Indian culture. Disenchanted from their worldly and bourgeois way of life, westerners turn to India to find peace and solace.

The Indian culture and history can certainly boast of the stimulating and mind-opening wisdom found in the ancient epics such as the likes of Ramayana and Mahabharata that serve as beacons of enlightenment and awareness to the seekers of truth and spiritual bliss. Lord Krishna speaks, in the Bhargava Gita of how each and every individual can come to abide in the subtle philosophical principles embedded in the scriptures in ones day to day activities. Lord Buddha equally teaches the principles of followership of the “Middle Path” by exercising and exerting authority over passions. It should be clearly admitted that Indian sages or mentors in spiritual and philosophical issues renowned for their profound wisdom hard started analyzing and deducing hypothesis on life’s issues for more than decades of centuries, the west only recently began pondering on such issues.

Influenced and induced by the philosophical trends of history, as well as religious and moral beliefs, Indian art from the caves of Ajanta, Khajuraho, Ellora and the temples of the south are living witnesses and testimonies to the satisfying aesthetic standards and sensibility of perfection achieved by Indian sculptors, architects and artists in the ancient times. Westerners have claim of intense spiritual enlightenment and awakening on visitations to such temples.

In music as well as dance, are two other significant entities that characterize the rich and dynamic culture of the Indians. The Indian cultural music is strikingly extraordinary due to its continuity in development and growth. Prior to the Christian historic period, Indian music had propagated not only definite rules of practical theory, but an even depth of insight and understanding of appreciative measure. Having been built on the foundations and concept of ragas and fast, Indian music and dance are established as appropriate in depicting diverse emotions and moods.

Hindustani and Karnataka, two significant schools of classical music, whose rules are derived from the Sangeet Ratnakar by Sarangdeva and Natya Shastra of Bharata are well established in Indian history. These forms of classical music have had a great impact as well as having influenced to a large account, western music. Zakir Hussain, Pandit Ravi Shankar and a host of other notable Maestros have made tremendous contributions to the growth and development of Indian classical music to the western world.

The backdrop and foundations of Indian dance, comes with a diverse and wealthy essence. Historians lay claim to the notion that Indian dance is as diverse as the culture and the land itself. Undoubtedly, it still holds onto the implicit bond that binds the Indian people together. From a range of classical, to folk, the dances of India are an articulate and eloquent blend of expressions of an ancient civilization, whose erudition continuously evokes the desired search of humans for a conscious identity and self-discovery within one’s self and with his creator.

The beauty of Indian dance is in its ability to convey the people’s sense of rhythm and abandon as well as their jocularity. Often said, the origins of these dances can be linked to Hindu temples, where they were first birthed and nurtured until they attained maturity and their full stature, hence the impulse of such dances to have or exhibit some religious context to it. Four systems of classical dance are accounted for in Indian culture, though other prominent ones exist. But as in all performing arts within the context of the Indian history and traditions, the concept of “rasa” advocates a central position. This essence of the rasa is conveyed via the “Bhava” or the “expression”, through the emulation of Abhinaya.

Hinduism is said to be the earliest form of religion in Indian history and dates back to several millenniums. Hinduism’s earliest records can be found in the Indus valley civilization. Owing its core values to Vedas and the Hindu culture, it lays its focus and reference from the Holy Scriptures in the sacred language of the Sanskrit. Laying its projection on the belief in god in a variety of forms and on the emphasis on rituals, which are said to be practical in the unity of spiritual togetherness and kinship, other essentially notable features are the belief in the Guru Shishya tradition of learning and a divided structured caste system.

Apart from the Hindu Religion, Indian culture and history boast of the Jains, who claim, and have presented scholarly reports and documentation to prove that their religion is the most ancient of religions.

Another very critical and historically famous religion notable in the Indian history is Buddhism. Based on the teachings and practises of Gautama Buddha. Many say Buddhism, rather than a religion is more of a system of morality and ethics.

Through forceful coercion and conversions, Islam was introduced into India by invaders, who set up religion and rule in the country. Today it is one of the largest religions amongst the Indian community. The Greeks and Indian civilizations came into close proximity and thus the influences of such civilizations rubbed off on each culture, this was as a result of Alexander’s prominent invasion on India, which opened up a land route from Europe to the India. The impact of civilization was further felt, as the French, Portuguese and to a larger extent the Brits, whose influences of Christianity played a minimal but enduring role on Indian civilization and cultural heritage as well as its religious beliefs.

In recent times, Indians have demonstrated a deep interest in further encouraging and promoting its cultural and unique historical values and heritage. This revivification of India’s national identity has been greeted with a boost of larger awareness in the sectors of Indian classical music and dance and the realm of indigenous folk arts the world over

Educational institutions are beginning to ensure that future generations are inculcated and imbibed with the values of the buoyant cultural and historical heritage of its people for the world to see. Cultural Festivals of India had a huge success in the west in recent times, so has the government’s effort in promoting Indian heritage and cultural values domestically been met with a huge and enthusiastic response.

The Indian culture is one of philosophical dynamism. Throughout history and time, no other civilization nor cultural heritage has been known to produce deduced hypothetical philosophy that has transcended into the future from the past. Be it in the sciences, medicine, astronomy as well as astrology, the Indian culture has bordered it all. Ancient and modern India has produced some of the world’s greatest minds and thinkers, this phenomenon can be easily associated with the vast knowledge that lies within the underlying layers of the Indian heritage. As William Durant, the great American historian put it, “India is the motherland of our race.”

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Works Cited

• Aurobindo, Sri. The Renaissance in India: On Indian Culture and Other Essays.  Arya: Aug 1918. Print.
• Amartya, Sen. The Argumentative Indian: Writings on Indian History, Culture and Identity. Picador 1st Edition: 2006. Print.
• “Arts and Culture.” National Portal of India. n.d. Web 10 June 2013. Retrieved from http://india.gov.in/india-glance/culture-heritage
• Elwin, V. The Religion of an Indian Tribe . Bombay: Oxford University Press. 1943. Print.
• Muller, Max. F. Sacred Books of the East: The Zend Avesta, Vol 1: The Vendidad. 1910. Web. 10 June 2013. Retrieved from http://www.holybooks.com/the-sacred-books-of-the-east-all-50-volumes/

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The History of India

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Published: Nov 16, 2018

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Essay on India

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Essay on India in 150 words

Essay on india in 200-300 words, essay on india in 500-1000 words.

India, a diverse and culturally rich country located in South Asia, is renowned for its vibrant festivals, ancient heritage sites, and diverse landscapes. With a population of over 1.3 billion people, India is a melting pot of religions, languages, and ethnicities. It is a secular nation that upholds democracy and freedom. India has made significant contributions to art, literature, science, and philosophy. Despite challenges, it has achieved progress in various fields, including technology and economic growth. As the world’s largest democracy, India’s cultural richness, traditions, and hospitality attract tourists from around the world. With a young and dynamic workforce, India is emerging as a global player in innovation and entrepreneurship. India’s resilience, cultural heritage, and growing influence continue to captivate the world, making it an important player on the global stage.

India, known as the land of diversity, is a country of rich culture, history, and traditions. It is located in South Asia and is the seventh-largest country by land area. India is renowned for its vibrant festivals, ancient heritage sites, and diverse landscapes, ranging from the majestic Himalayas to the serene backwaters of Kerala.

With a population of over 1.3 billion people, India is a melting pot of different religions, languages, and ethnicities. It is a secular country that upholds the principles of democracy and freedom. India has made significant contributions to art, literature, science, and philosophy throughout history.

Despite its challenges, India has achieved notable progress in various fields, including technology, space exploration, and economic growth. It is the world’s largest democracy and has a parliamentary system of government. India’s cultural richness, traditions, and hospitality attract millions of tourists from around the world each year.

In recent years, India has emerged as a global player, contributing to the world economy, science, and technology. It is home to a young and dynamic workforce that is driving innovation and entrepreneurship.

In conclusion, India is a country that embraces diversity, celebrates its rich cultural heritage, and strives for progress. With its vast landscapes, ancient history, and vibrant culture, India continues to captivate the world. The resilience and spirit of its people, coupled with its growing influence, make India a significant player on the global stage.

Title: India – A Tapestry of Diversity, Heritage, and Progress

Introduction :

India, a nation located in South Asia, is a land of rich cultural heritage, diverse traditions, and breathtaking landscapes. With a population of over 1.3 billion people, India is known for its vibrant festivals, ancient history, and varied cuisines. This essay explores the multifaceted aspects of India, including its rich cultural tapestry, historical significance, economic growth, and contributions to the world. From the majestic Himalayas in the north to the serene backwaters of Kerala in the south, India’s beauty and diversity captivate the hearts of millions. Let us embark on a journey through the vibrant and enchanting land of India.

Cultural Heritage

India’s cultural heritage is as vast and diverse as its geographical expanse. It is a melting pot of religions, languages, and customs. The country is home to numerous religions, including Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Each religion has its own unique rituals, traditions, and festivals, contributing to the colorful tapestry of Indian culture. Festivals like Diwali, Eid, Holi, Christmas, and Durga Puja are celebrated with great enthusiasm and are a reflection of India’s religious diversity.

Historical Significance

India boasts a rich history that spans thousands of years. It has been the birthplace of several ancient civilizations, including the Indus Valley Civilization and the Maurya and Gupta Empires. The country has been the center of learning and trade for centuries, attracting scholars, explorers, and traders from around the world. The Mughal Empire, known for its architectural marvels like the Taj Mahal, left a lasting legacy on India’s history. The British colonial rule in India and the subsequent struggle for independence led by Mahatma Gandhi shaped the modern history of the nation.

Economic Growth

India has experienced significant economic growth in recent years. It is one of the world’s fastest-growing major economies and has become a prominent player on the global stage. The country has embraced economic liberalization, attracting foreign investments and fostering entrepreneurship. India’s information technology industry, pharmaceutical sector, and service industries have flourished, contributing to its economic prosperity. However, challenges such as poverty, income inequality, and unemployment persist, highlighting the need for inclusive growth and sustainable development.

Contributions to the World

India has made remarkable contributions to various fields, including science, literature, arts, and spirituality. Ancient Indian scholars made significant advancements in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. Indian literature, such as the Vedas, Ramayana, and Mahabharata, continues to inspire and influence people worldwide. Indian art forms like classical music, dance, and cinema have gained international recognition for their richness and beauty. Spiritual traditions like yoga and meditation have transcended borders, offering tools for holistic well-being.

Unity in Diversity

India’s strength lies in its unity amidst diversity. Despite its linguistic, religious, and cultural differences, the people of India have come together as a nation. The Constitution of India, adopted in 1950, upholds the principles of democracy, secularism, and unity. The diverse fabric of Indian society is reflected in its official languages, Hindi and English, and the recognition of regional languages. India’s unity in diversity is celebrated through cultural exchange, interfaith dialogue, and the promotion of national integration.

Future Challenges and Opportunities

India faces a range of challenges, including poverty, environmental degradation, healthcare disparities, and social inequality. Addressing these challenges requires concerted efforts in education, healthcare, sustainable development, and social welfare. However, India also presents immense opportunities for progress. With a young and dynamic workforce, a vibrant entrepreneurial spirit, and a growing middle class, India has the potential to achieve inclusive growth, technological advancements, and social transformation.

Conclusion :

India, with its diverse cultures, historical significance, economic growth, and contributions to the world, stands as a shining example of unity in diversity. The nation’s cultural heritage, ancient history, and rapid development reflect its resilience and potential. As India continues its journey toward progress and prosperity, it must embrace sustainable development, address societal challenges, and build an inclusive and equitable society. India’s beauty, traditions, and people leave an indelible mark on the hearts and minds of those who explore its captivating tapestry.

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Essay on Indian History

History is agreed upon as an uninterrupted process in time and space.

Yet knowledge of the period is essential to understand and appreciate the nature of the historical changes that take place in time and space.

Periodization of Indian history is a tricky and controversial concept. There is no unanimity among the historians about the periodization of Indian history.

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Broadly, there are two types of periodization in vogue, one on the religious and ethnic nature of rulers which divides it as Hindu, Muslim and the British periods and the other, borrowed from European historiography – Ancient, Medieval and Modern.

Initially, the British historian, James Mill proposed the tripartite division of Indian history on religious and ethnic nature of rulers as Hindu, Muslim and British. Even this division is not precise as all the rulers in the Hindu period were not Hindus and we have a number of rulers who migrated to India from other countries and ruled side by side with the Hindu rulers and the Hindus were not culturally a homogenous entity either.

Further, this division is not acceptable to modem historians as it has communal tinge which is not desirable for a pluralistic country like India. But there are still some historians who believe in that division. The second type of division – Ancient, Medieval and Modern – is also regarded as inadequate as the terms are imprecise and vague and fail to explain the nature of changes that took place from time to time.

In the last few decades, there is a revisiting of periodization by the histo­rians because new questions are asked and new sources are consulted and collated to arrive at conclusions regarding the factors of change that necessitated new socio-economic formations that led to new cultural and political patterns that shaped the course of our historical process.

Keeping the latest trends in periodization in mind an attempt ismade to give primacy to the nature of change propelled by factors of change – technology, material milieu and ideology – in the creation of new socio-economic formation linking it to political and cultural formation in time and space. As there is so far no new nomenclature acceptable to all, I followed the broad periodization of ancient, medieval and modem as that format is still popular.

The ancient period begins with prehistory and ends with the Gupta age. The medieval period begins with the post-Gupta age and ends with the advent of Europeans. The medieval period witnessed the emergence and assertion of regional polities and cultures and the arrival of two separate nationalities, the Muslims with belief in Islam and the westerners believing in Christianity who played a crucial role in integrating politically and creating a crucible of culturally diverse India.

The modern period begins with colonialism introduced by the new political masters, the British. The modern period witnessed the growth and spread of new ideas and ideals of democracy, equality, social justice, consequent to the introduction of western model of educational system.

The introduction of colonial power structure which led to ruination of Indian populace led to non-violent and sometimes to violent mass upsurge that resulted in the declaration of Indian independence and division of India on the principle of separate nationalities in 1947.

Generally, the historian with the help of available primary and secondary sources reconstructs the history of any country. As history is not a simple narration of events in a chronological and spatial order, the historian has to choose the sources that are authentic and can be corroborated by other sources before arriving at a historical generalization.

As the contemporary approach to history is to understand the historical process and attempt to explain it in the present times, a historian should be knowledgeable about theories of historical method as well as of other social sciences. It is essential to develop the needed analytical skills of source materials objectively before the historical process is constructed.

Primary sources are those, which are contemporaneous with an event or happening, and secondary sources are those, which belong to a later time. For instance, the Asokan edicts are the primary sources to understand Asoka’s Dhamma.

The Allahabad Pillar Prasasthi and the Aihole epigraph of Samudragupta and Pulakesin II are respectively the primary sources for under­standing the conquests of Samudragupta and Pulakesin II. Romila Thapar’s Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas belongs to the category of secondary sources as she wrote that book after a thorough examination of the entire published and original sources.

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Essay on Greatness of India

Students are often asked to write an essay on Greatness of India in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Greatness of India

The land of diversity.

India, a country rich in its diverse culture and heritage, is known for its unique identity. It’s a land where numerous religions, languages, and traditions coexist harmoniously.

Historical Significance

India’s history is a testament to its greatness. From the ancient Indus Valley Civilization to the mighty Mughal Empire, India’s past is filled with stories of grandeur and glory.

Contributions to Science

India has made significant contributions to science. The concept of zero, Ayurveda, and Yoga originated from India, showcasing its intellectual prowess.

Rich Natural Beauty

India’s natural beauty, from the Himalayan peaks to the Indian Ocean’s shores, is breathtaking and diverse, reflecting the country’s greatness.

250 Words Essay on Greatness of India

The historical eminence of india.

India, a country with an ancient civilization, has been a beacon of knowledge and wisdom throughout history. Home to the world’s oldest urban civilization, the Indus Valley, and the birthplace of four major religions, India’s cultural richness and diversity are unparalleled.

India’s Scientific Prowess

India’s contributions to science and technology are noteworthy. Ancient Indian mathematicians introduced the concept of zero and the decimal system. The field of astronomy also flourished in India with Aryabhata’s accurate calculations of celestial bodies. Today, India’s prowess is evident in space technology, with successful missions like Mangalyaan and Chandrayaan.

Cultural Richness and Diversity

India’s cultural heritage is a melting pot of various customs, traditions, and languages. With over 2000 distinct ethnic groups and more than 1600 spoken languages, India stands as a testament to multicultural coexistence. Its literature, music, dance, and visual arts are a reflection of its societal mosaic.

Economic Potential

India’s economic potential is vast. It’s the world’s fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP and is projected to be the third-largest by 2030. India’s IT sector is a global powerhouse, and its manufacturing and services sectors are rapidly growing, contributing to its economic strength.

India’s Global Influence

India’s influence on the global stage is increasing. As the world’s largest democracy, it plays a crucial role in global politics. India’s philosophy of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, meaning ‘the world is one family’, is a guiding principle in its foreign policy, promoting global peace and cooperation.

500 Words Essay on Greatness of India

The cultural mosaic.

India, a country known for its vibrant cultural diversity, is a land where numerous ethnic groups coexist, each contributing to the rich tapestry of the nation’s heritage. The cultural plurality of India is reflected in a multitude of languages, religions, traditions, and festivals that are celebrated with great fervor. The country’s cultural richness is not only a testament to its historical legacy but also a reflection of its capacity to adapt and evolve over time.

Ancient Knowledge Systems

India’s greatness is also evident in its ancient knowledge systems. The country is the birthplace of many scientific and mathematical concepts, including the decimal system, zero, and advanced astronomy. The ancient texts of Ayurveda, Yoga, and Naturopathy are still relevant today, providing alternative healing methods to modern medicine.

Architectural Marvels

India’s economic potential is another facet of its greatness. With one of the largest and youngest populations in the world, India is poised to become a significant player in the global economy. The country’s tech industry is a global powerhouse, and its manufacturing sector is rapidly expanding. Despite the challenges, India’s economic resilience and potential for growth make it a key player in the global economic landscape.

Spiritual Legacy

India’s spiritual legacy is a significant aspect of its greatness. The country is the birthplace of religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. It has welcomed and assimilated various other beliefs, making it a global spiritual hub. The teachings of peace, tolerance, and non-violence, propagated by Indian spiritual leaders, have left an indelible mark on the world.

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Essay on Independence Day (15 August) for Students and Children

500+ words essay on independence day.

One of the most memorable days in Indian history is 15th August. It’s the day on which the Indian sub-continent got independence after a long struggle. India only has three national festivals that are celebrated by the whole nation as one. One being the Independence Day (15th August) and the other two being Republic Day (26th January) and Gandhi Jayanti (2nd October). After independence, India became the largest democracy in the world. We fought very hard to get our independence from the Britishers. In this essay on Independence Day, we are going to discuss the history and importance of Independence Day.

History of Our Independence Day

For almost two centuries the Britishers ruled over us. And the citizen of the country suffered a lot due to these oppressors. British officials treat us like slaves until we manage to fight back against them.

We struggled for our independence but work tirelessly and selflessly under the guidance of our leaders Jawahar Lal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose, Mahatma Gandhi , Chandra Shekhar Azad, and Bhagat Singh. Some of these leaders choose the path of violence while some choose non-violence. But the ultimate aim of these was to drive out the Britishers from the country. And on 15th August 1947, the long-awaited dream come true.

Why We Celebrate Independence Day?

To relive the moment and to enjoy the spirit of freedom and independence we celebrate Independence Day. Another reason is to remember the sacrifices and lives we have lost in this struggle. Besides, we celebrated it to remind us that this freedom that we enjoy is earned the hard way.

Apart from that, the celebration wakes up the patriot inside us. Along with celebration, the young generation is acquainted with the struggles of the people who lived at that time.

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Activities on Independence Day

Although it’s a national holiday the people of the country celebrate it with great enthusiasm. Schools, offices, societies, and colleges celebrate this day by organizing various small and big events.

Every year at Red Fort the Prime Minister of India host the national flag. In the honor of the occasion, 21 gunshots are fired. This is the begging of the main event. This event is later on followed by an army parade.

The school and colleges organize cultural events, fancy dress competitions, speech, debate, and quiz competition.

Importance of Independence Day

Every Indian holds a different viewpoint about Indian Independence. For some, it’s a reminder of the long struggle while for youngsters it stands for the glory and honor of the country. Above all, we can see the feeling of patriotism across the country.

The Indian’s celebrate Independence Day with a feeling of nationalism and patriotism across the country. On this day every citizen echoes with festive feeling and pride in the diversity and unity of the people. It’s not only a celebration of Independence but also of the unity in diversity of the country.

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