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Considering the potential of inclusive education at your school? Perhaps you are currently working in an inclusive classroom and looking for effective strategies. Lean into this deep-dive article on inclusive education to gather a solid understanding of what it means, what the research shows, and proven strategies that bring out the benefits for everyone.

What is inclusive education? What does it mean?

Inclusive education is when all students, regardless of any challenges they may have, are placed in age-appropriate general education classes that are in their own neighborhood schools to receive high-quality instruction, interventions, and supports that enable them to meet success in the core curriculum (Bui, Quirk, Almazan, & Valenti, 2010; Alquraini & Gut, 2012).

The school and classroom operate on the premise that students with disabilities are as fundamentally competent as students without disabilities. Therefore, all students can be full participants in their classrooms and in the local school community. Much of the movement is related to legislation that students receive their education in the least restrictive environment (LRE). This means they are with their peers without disabilities to the maximum degree possible, with general education the placement of first choice for all students (Alquraini & Gut, 2012).

Successful inclusive education happens primarily through accepting, understanding, and attending to student differences and diversity, which can include physical, cognitive, academic, social, and emotional. This is not to say that students never need to spend time out of regular education classes, because sometimes they do for a very particular purpose — for instance, for speech or occupational therapy. But the goal is this should be the exception.

The driving principle is to make all students feel welcomed, appropriately challenged, and supported in their efforts. It’s also critically important that the adults are supported, too. This includes the regular education teacher and the special education teacher , as well as all other staff and faculty who are key stakeholders — and that also includes parents.

The research basis for inclusive education

Inclusive education and inclusive classrooms are gaining steam because there is so much research-based evidence around the benefits. Take a look.

Benefits for students

Simply put, both students with and without disabilities learn more . Many studies over the past three decades have found that students with disabilities have higher achievement and improved skills through inclusive education, and their peers without challenges benefit, too (Bui, et al., 2010; Dupuis, Barclay, Holms, Platt, Shaha, & Lewis, 2006; Newman, 2006; Alquraini & Gut, 2012).

For students with disabilities ( SWD ), this includes academic gains in literacy (reading and writing), math, and social studies — both in grades and on standardized tests — better communication skills, and improved social skills and more friendships. More time in the general classroom for SWD is also associated with fewer absences and referrals for disruptive behavior. This could be related to findings about attitude — they have a higher self-concept, they like school and their teachers more, and are more motivated around working and learning.

Their peers without disabilities also show more positive attitudes in these same areas when in inclusive classrooms. They make greater academic gains in reading and math. Research shows the presence of SWD gives non-SWD new kinds of learning opportunities. One of these is when they serve as peer-coaches. By learning how to help another student, their own performance improves. Another is that as teachers take into greater consideration their diverse SWD learners, they provide instruction in a wider range of learning modalities (visual, auditory, and kinesthetic), which benefits their regular ed students as well.

Researchers often explore concerns and potential pitfalls that might make instruction less effective in inclusion classrooms (Bui et al., 2010; Dupois et al., 2006). But findings show this is not the case. Neither instructional time nor how much time students are engaged differs between inclusive and non-inclusive classrooms. In fact, in many instances, regular ed students report little to no awareness that there even are students with disabilities in their classes. When they are aware, they demonstrate more acceptance and tolerance for SWD when they all experience an inclusive education together.

Parent’s feelings and attitudes

Parents, of course, have a big part to play. A comprehensive review of the literature (de Boer, Pijl, & Minnaert, 2010) found that on average, parents are somewhat uncertain if inclusion is a good option for their SWD . On the upside, the more experience with inclusive education they had, the more positive parents of SWD were about it. Additionally, parents of regular ed students held a decidedly positive attitude toward inclusive education.

Now that we’ve seen the research highlights on outcomes, let’s take a look at strategies to put inclusive education in practice.

Inclusive classroom strategies

There is a definite need for teachers to be supported in implementing an inclusive classroom. A rigorous literature review of studies found most teachers had either neutral or negative attitudes about inclusive education (de Boer, Pijl, & Minnaert, 2011). It turns out that much of this is because they do not feel they are very knowledgeable, competent, or confident about how to educate SWD .

However, similar to parents, teachers with more experience — and, in the case of teachers, more training with inclusive education — were significantly more positive about it. Evidence supports that to be effective, teachers need an understanding of best practices in teaching and of adapted instruction for SWD ; but positive attitudes toward inclusion are also among the most important for creating an inclusive classroom that works (Savage & Erten, 2015).

Of course, a modest blog article like this is only going to give the highlights of what have been found to be effective inclusive strategies. For there to be true long-term success necessitates formal training. To give you an idea though, here are strategies recommended by several research studies and applied experience (Morningstar, Shogren, Lee, & Born, 2015; Alquraini, & Gut, 2012).

Use a variety of instructional formats

Start with whole-group instruction and transition to flexible groupings which could be small groups, stations/centers, and paired learning. With regard to the whole group, using technology such as interactive whiteboards is related to high student engagement. Regarding flexible groupings: for younger students, these are often teacher-led but for older students, they can be student-led with teacher monitoring. Peer-supported learning can be very effective and engaging and take the form of pair-work, cooperative grouping, peer tutoring, and student-led demonstrations.

Ensure access to academic curricular content

All students need the opportunity to have learning experiences in line with the same learning goals. This will necessitate thinking about what supports individual SWDs need, but overall strategies are making sure all students hear instructions, that they do indeed start activities, that all students participate in large group instruction, and that students transition in and out of the classroom at the same time. For this latter point, not only will it keep students on track with the lessons, their non-SWD peers do not see them leaving or entering in the middle of lessons, which can really highlight their differences.

Apply universal design for learning

These are methods that are varied and that support many learners’ needs. They include multiple ways of representing content to students and for students to represent learning back, such as modeling, images, objectives and manipulatives, graphic organizers, oral and written responses, and technology. These can also be adapted as modifications for SWDs where they have large print, use headphones, are allowed to have a peer write their dictated response, draw a picture instead, use calculators, or just have extra time. Think too about the power of project-based and inquiry learning where students individually or collectively investigate an experience.

Now let’s put it all together by looking at how a regular education teacher addresses the challenge and succeeds in using inclusive education in her classroom.

A case study of inclusive practices in schools and classes

Mrs. Brown has been teaching for several years now and is both excited and a little nervous about her school’s decision to implement inclusive education. Over the years she has had several special education students in her class but they either got pulled out for time with specialists or just joined for activities like art, music, P.E., lunch, and sometimes for selected academics.

She has always found this method a bit disjointed and has wanted to be much more involved in educating these students and finding ways they can take part more fully in her classroom. She knows she needs guidance in designing and implementing her inclusive classroom, but she’s ready for the challenge and looking forward to seeing the many benefits she’s been reading and hearing about for the children, their families, their peers, herself, and the school as a whole.

During the month before school starts, Mrs. Brown meets with the special education teacher, Mr. Lopez — and other teachers and staff who work with her students — to coordinate the instructional plan that is based on the IEPs (Individual Educational Plan) of the three students with disabilities who will be in her class the upcoming year.

About two weeks before school starts, she invites each of the three children and their families to come into the classroom for individual tours and get-to-know-you sessions with both herself and the special education teacher. She makes sure to provide information about back-to-school night and extends a personal invitation to them to attend so they can meet the other families and children. She feels very good about how this is coming together and how excited and happy the children and their families are feeling. One student really summed it up when he told her, “You and I are going to have a great year!”

The school district and the principal have sent out communications to all the parents about the move to inclusion education at Mrs. Brown’s school. Now she wants to make sure she really communicates effectively with the parents, especially as some of the parents of both SWD and regular ed students have expressed hesitation that having their child in an inclusive classroom would work.

She talks to the administration and other teachers and, with their okay, sends out a joint communication after about two months into the school year with some questions provided by the book Creating Inclusive Classrooms (Salend, 2001 referenced in Salend & Garrick-Duhaney, 2001) such as, “How has being in an inclusion classroom affected your child academically, socially, and behaviorally? Please describe any benefits or negative consequences you have observed in your child. What factors led to these changes?” and “How has your child’s placement in an inclusion classroom affected you? Please describe any benefits or any negative consequences for you.” and “What additional information would you like to have about inclusion and your child’s class?” She plans to look for trends and prepare a communication that she will share with parents. She also plans to send out a questionnaire with different questions every couple of months throughout the school year.

Since she found out about the move to an inclusive education approach at her school, Mrs. Brown has been working closely with the special education teacher, Mr. Lopez, and reading a great deal about the benefits and the challenges. Determined to be successful, she is especially focused on effective inclusive classroom strategies.

Her hard work is paying off. Her mid-year and end-of-year results are very positive. The SWDs are meeting their IEP goals. Her regular ed students are excelling. A spirit of collaboration and positive energy pervades her classroom and she feels this in the whole school as they practice inclusive education. The children are happy and proud of their accomplishments. The principal regularly compliments her. The parents are positive, relaxed, and supportive.

Mrs. Brown knows she has more to learn and do, but her confidence and satisfaction are high. She is especially delighted that she has been selected to be a part of her district’s team to train other regular education teachers about inclusive education and classrooms.

The future is very bright indeed for this approach. The evidence is mounting that inclusive education and classrooms are able to not only meet the requirements of LRE for students with disabilities, but to benefit regular education students as well. We see that with exposure both parents and teachers become more positive. Training and support allow regular education teachers to implement inclusive education with ease and success. All around it’s a win-win!

Lilla Dale McManis, MEd, PhD has a BS in child development, an MEd in special education, and a PhD in educational psychology. She was a K-12 public school special education teacher for many years and has worked at universities, state agencies, and in industry teaching prospective teachers, conducting research and evaluation with at-risk populations, and designing educational technology. Currently, she is President of Parent in the Know where she works with families in need and also does business consulting.

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What Is Inclusion in Education?

Providing a free, appropriate, non-restrictive education for all.

If you’ve spent time in a classroom as a teacher or a parent, you’ve probably heard the term “inclusion.” But what exactly is inclusion in education, and what does it mean for teachers and students?

What is inclusion in education?

Specifically, inclusion in education refers to ensuring students with physical, behavioral, or learning disabilities are integrated into general education classrooms as much as possible. It also means providing them the support and accommodations they need to succeed alongside their peers.

In the early years of American education, those with disabilities often didn’t receive any education at all. Eventually, there was a push to provide these students with an education, but it was usually in special schools or special classrooms, segregated from other students. People felt these students’ special needs could only be met if they were kept separate from the general student population. Some also didn’t want them mixing with what they called “normal” children.

Not surprisingly, the stigma attached to “special schools” and “special classrooms” created a divide, one that lasted into adulthood. Many communities didn’t (or weren’t able to) provide meaningful education for these students. If parents couldn’t afford private education, these children simply didn’t attend school at all. In 1970, only 20 percent of children with disabilities attended school.

But in 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act changed things. It required a free, appropriate education for all children. It provided funding to help schools accommodate those with disabilities, and created concepts like IEPs and other tools to help these students succeed.

Source: The Harkin Institute

In 1990, Congress reauthorized the legislation, changing its name to the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), which it is still known as today. The act covers children from birth to age 21. IDEA requires all public schools to provide the following :

• Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE): Students, regardless of disability, must all receive access to the same general education.
• Least Restrictive Environment (LRE): This is the portion of IDEA that pertains specifically to inclusion. It states that students with disabilities must be included in traditional classrooms to the maximum extent possible.
• Appropriate Evaluation: Schools must provide an evaluation following specific standards, to ensure students are properly placed and regularly assessed.
• Individualized Education Program (IEP): Every student identified as falling under IDEA receives an IEP, which lays out the accommodations the student needs to succeed in the classroom.
• Parent and Teacher Participation: IDEA sets out certain requirements for how schools must communicate and cooperate with parents.
• Procedural Safeguards: Parents have the right to review educational records, take an active part in all meetings regarding educational decisions, and receive notice before any changes are made.

What does “least-restrictive” mean?

IDEA requires students with disabilities to be accommodated in the general classroom “to the maximum extent possible.” To determine this, schools answer two questions :

• Can an appropriate education in the general education classroom with the use of supplementary aids and services be achieved satisfactorily?
• If a student is placed in a more restrictive setting, is the student “integrated” to the “maximum extent appropriate”?

Ultimately, the goal of inclusion in education is to default to providing an education in a general classroom, using the standard curriculum, whenever possible. For some students, this will require special accommodations, including but not limited to:

• Inclusion specialists, teacher aides, or paraeducators who co-teach or spend time in general classrooms to support students with special needs
• Classroom accommodations like changes in seating or access to specialized devices or materials

In some cases, it may not be possible to meet certain needs in the general classroom. When this is the case, schools must make every effort to meet those needs before determining that the student must spend part or all of their educational day in a different setting.

Inclusion and IEPs

IDEA outlined 13 areas of special education that require the creation and use of Individualized Education Plans (IEP). An IEP serves two purposes: to set reasonable measurable goals for the child, and to specify the services the school will provide. Schools and teachers work with parents and experts to create a plan specific to each qualifying student. These plans include the accommodations needed in the general classroom for the student to succeed. Learn more about IEPs here.

What does a good inclusive classroom look like?

It’s rarely possible to provide a quality education for students with special needs unless you have more than one educator in the classroom. These students often require one-on-one support, whether throughout the day or during certain activities. Inclusion classrooms might have:

• Co-teachers, who split their time between general instruction and student support
• Special Educators (SPED), who may “push in” or “pull out” as needed (see below)
• Paraeducators, also known as teacher aides, who support students one-on-one or in small groups
• Interpreters, for students who are blind or deaf

Inclusive classrooms may also provide support for students with specialized equipment or spaces, such as text-to-speech/speech-to-text programs, pencil grips, calm-down corners, etc. Discover more about inclusive classrooms here.

Push In/Pull Out

Educators can provide special needs support in one of two ways. They can “push in,” meaning they work with students as needed in the general classroom. Or they can “pull out,” taking one or more students at a time to work together in a separate location. There are pros and cons to each.

Pushing in can be done by SPED teachers or aides, general classroom teachers, interpreters, speech or occupational therapists, and more. They might work quietly side-by-side with a student or provide general support as needed during group activities.

In a very quiet classroom, push-in support can sometimes be distracting to other students. A student may also need specialized instruction, more time than the general schedule allows, or a safe space to deal with behavior issues. In these cases, pulling out makes more sense. This is usually done by SPED teachers or aides, counselors, or speech or occupational therapists.

Students may have scheduled sessions, or use the accommodations only when needed. Educators usually try to limit the amount of “pull out” time, since that defeats the purpose of an inclusionary classroom. Learn more about “push-in/pull-out services” here.

How does inclusion benefit all students?

Source: ViewSonic

During the 1990s, schools began to place more emphasis on true inclusion. In other words, students with disabilities didn’t just attend public school only to be segregated into their own classroom. Rather, these students finally found their place in the general classroom, supported by specialists and paraeducators as needed. They received the same access to the curriculum, as well as the ability to integrate socially.

According to one report summarizing multiple studies , “Included students develop stronger skills in reading and mathematics, have higher rates of attendance, are less likely to have behavioral problems, and are more likely to complete secondary school than students who have not been included.”

What about the students in the classroom without disabilities? The same report states , “In most cases, being educated alongside a student with a disability does not lead to adverse effects for non-disabled children. On the contrary, some research indicates that non-disabled students who are educated in inclusive classrooms hold less prejudicial views and are more accepting of people who are different from themselves.”

When students with disabilities aren’t hidden away, other children see them from a young age and learn that people of all abilities can and should learn, play, and live in the same world.

What are the challenges of inclusion in education?

Proper inclusion requires extensive cooperation between teachers, parents, and administration.

• Admin must work to provide the right staff to support student needs, and find the funding to cover any specialized equipment or materials. They must also help teachers manage behavior challenges and work with parents.
• Teachers bear the greatest burden, since they must work to support all the students in their classroom including those with special needs. They also need to communicate with parents, asking for support and providing regular updates.
• Parents are a vital link in the chain, but not all students have parents or guardians who are willing or able to be involved in their child’s education. This can especially be a problem for students with behavioral disabilities.

Behavior issues are one of the biggest problems in inclusion classrooms, especially when there aren’t enough teachers or aides, or when parents or administration are unable or unwilling to get involved. Some special needs students also face bullying or social isolation, which adults in the classroom may or may not be aware of.

Inclusion in Education Resources

There’s a lot more to know about inclusion in education. Try these resources for more information.

• Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, U.S. Department of Education
• Inclusive Schools Network
• National Inclusion Project
• Inclusion in Action: Practical Strategies to Modify Your Curriculum (Eredics, 2018)
• The Inclusion Toolbox: Strategies and Techniques for All Teachers (Kurth/Gross, 2014)
• Inclusion Strategies That Work! Research-Based Methods for the Classroom (Karten, 2015)

Looking for more? Check out Teacher Questions About Inclusive Classrooms Answered .

Plus, join the weareteachers helpline group on facebook to ask for advice, exchange ideas, and chat with other educators .

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Inclusive education.

Inclusion is basically ensuring that every child, adolescent and youth is taken into consideration equally by the education system. It is about guaranteeing fair and quality learning conditions, processes, and outcomes for all.

Opertti, Renato. 2017. 15 clues to support the Education 2030 Agenda . Current and critical issues in the curriculum 14. Geneva: UNESCO-IBE.

Inclusive education does not mean dividing and separating students based on their “abilities”, nor physically integrating them into schools without adapting the infrastructure, curriculum, pedagogy and teacher roles. The focus should in fact be on the characteristics of each individual and how each person can learn more and better by being part of a collective learning space with peers and teachers.

Inclusive education

Definition Inclusive education is the process of reinforcing the capacity of education systems to welcome and reach out to all learners (UNESCO, 2017: 7). More specifically, it is ‘a process that involves the transformation of schools and other centres of learning so as to cater for all children – including boys and girls, students from ethnic minorities, those affected by HIV and AIDS, and those with disabilities and learning difficulties’ (UNESCO, 2008: 5).

Inclusive education is an effective way to provide all children an equal chance to go to the same school, learn, and develop the skills they need to succeed during their lifetime (IIEP-UNESCO, 2019). In inclusive educations systems ‘learning methods and educational materials that address the needs of all students are mainstreamed into the system so that barriers that potentially limit participation are removed. Disability is just one cause of exclusion , among other social, physical, and institutional limitations.’ (IIEP-UNESCO, 2019: 6).

References IIEP-UNESCO. 2019. On the road to inclusion : highlights from the UNICEF and IIEP Technical Round Tables on Disability- inclusive Education Sector Planning . Paris: IIEP-UNESCO. Retrieved from: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000372193

UNESCO. 2008. Inclusive education : The Way of the Future, Forty-eight session of the international Conference on Education.  Reference document: ED/BIE/CONFINTED 48/3. Geneva: UNESCO. Retrieved from: http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Policy_Dialogue/48th_ICE/CONFINTED_48-3_English.pdf

UNESCO. 2017. A guide for ensuring inclusion and equity in education . Paris: UNESCO. Retrieved from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002482/248254e.pdf

To explore further IIEP-UNESCO. 2019. On the road to inclusion : highlights from the UNICEF and IIEP Technical Round Tables on Disability- inclusive Education Sector Planning . Paris: IIEP-UNESCO. Retrieved from: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000372193

IIEP-UNESCO. n.d. Inclusive education : Planning school for all . Accessed 23 August 2021: http://www.iiep.unesco.org/en/inclusive-education-planning-school-all

IIEP-UNESCO; UNICEF; GPE (Global Partnership for Education); UK Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office. 2021. ‘Chapter 11 Inclusive Education for Children with Disabilities’. In: Education Sector Analysis Methodological Guidelines – Volume 3 . Retrieved from: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000377738/PDF/377738eng.pdf.multi

UNICEF. n.d. Inclusive Education : Every child has the right to quality education and learning . Accessed 15 August 2021: https://www.unicef.org/education/inclusive-education

What is Inclusive Education?

Inclusive education welcomes all students into regular classes with same-age peers in their community, with supports or accommodations that ensure equitable opportunities for all students to learn, contribute and participate in all aspects of school life. Inclusive education means designing schools, classrooms, programs and activities so that all students participate and learn together. Inclusive public neighbourhood schools are the heart of our communities and of quality education systems.

Features of Inclusive Schools

• All students are welcomed and valued for who they are.
• All students are supported to set personal goals and build on individual strengths.
• All students have equitable access to learning, with accommodations and support as required to overcome systemic barriers and discrimination.
• All students are supported to interact, play and collaborate with other students their own age.
• Parents are welcomed as respected partners in their child’s education and local school community.
• School-wide commitment to upholding a safe, welcoming and supportive culture that emphasizes belonging and respect for diversity.

Integration ≠ Inclusion

Inclusion is not simply integration or “mainstreaming” of students who were once characterized as different or special compared to “the mainstream.” Inclusion removes systemic barriers that persist in legacy systems that were designed with a narrower understanding of who belonged in normal society. It reconfigures physical and social structures to welcome diversity (e.g. of abilities, culture, ethnicity and gender identity). Pending the removal of barriers, additional supports may be required to ensure that all individuals’ rights to access and inclusion are respected.

It’s a Human Right

Equitable access to inclusive education for ALL students with disabilities is a fundamental human right. It is not an optional “program”, nor is this right dependent on individual beliefs, student abilities or organizational priorities.

The right of all students with disabilities to access inclusive education without discrimination was recognized by Articles 5 and 24 of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. The UN CRPD was ratified by 176 countries, including Canada, and clarified by General Comment No. 4 (the Right to Inclusive Education), released by the UN CRPD Committee in 2016.

#AllMeansAll – It’s right for all students

Decades of research has consistently and conclusively proven that inclusive education benefits all students and strengthens schools and education systems. A  Harvard-led 2016 review  of 280 studies from 25 countries found inclusive educational settings “confer substantial short and long-term benefits for students with and without disabilities.”

This was affirmed by the  European Agency for Special Needs  and Inclusive Education in 2018 and in a  2017 meta-analysis  of outcomes for 4,800,000 students which found learning environments that include students with disability have no detrimental impact, and some positive impact, on academic performance of non-disabled peers.

Teaching to Diversity

Inclusive education goes beyond ending segregation and achieving integration, and is the final step in moving towards the model envisioned in  BC’s new curriculum , which acknowledges the unique abilities of all individuals and embraces teaching to diversity.

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Inclusive Education

Introduction, general overviews.

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Inclusive Education by Elizabeth B. Kozleski , Iris Yu LAST REVIEWED: 28 September 2016 LAST MODIFIED: 28 September 2016 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0162

Inclusive education has become an international concept, implemented in various formal schooling systems in nations in the southern and northern hemispheres. As appropriations of inclusive education appear across the globe so do multiple meanings. In particular, cultural, historical constructions of disabilities guide context-specific implementation and policy formation of inclusive education in different countries. Disabilities seen solely as intra-individual traits lead to lowered expectations, thus constraining opportunities to learn. However when caregivers, educators, family members, and other providers understand dis/abilities as an intersection of social, cultural, historical, environmental, and intra-individual abilities, more equitable forms of education emerge for all students. Shifts in understanding the locus of disability guide the development of national policies and laws to support inclusive education implementation. Research has also surfaced the complexities, challenges, and innovative practices that must be considered in order to install inclusive education as a normative practice. To support inclusive education, educators need to have both the capacity to provide learning opportunities to all students in their classrooms as well as the vision that all students, regardless of race, language, religion, gender, and ability should be given the opportunity to receive an excellent education. Educators need institutional contexts that are designed to accommodate inclusive practices, and school leaders who understand the complexities of the work and can provide the feedback, support, and leadership necessary for sustaining inclusive practices across generations of students and their teachers. This article outlines the history of inclusive education and provides insight into its multiple meanings. In particular, citations are included that address the ways in which disability has been constructed. From there, entries examine research in inclusive education as well as the policies that support its implementation. We draw on articles that specifically review policy development in the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and various countries in Asia. A separate section looks at the impact of new political economies on the design and spread of inclusive education. A final section examines inclusive education outcomes, including school and classroom-level implementation and implications for inclusive teacher education.

Inclusive education appeared initially in the research literature in the late 1980s. Framed as an alternative to special education, inclusive education expanded the responsibilities of schools and school systems to increase access, participation, and opportunities to learn for marginalized populations of students. Using a cultural lens to frame educational practice, inclusive education can be seen as a collaborative, mutually constitutive, responsive interaction between learners and teachers ( Skrtic, et al. 1996 ). In a digital age, foregrounding the interactive, interpretive nature of teaching offers the potential for self-determined learning that is transparent and engages democratic community building. Fully realized, inclusive education operates on critically grounded assumptions about the construction of ability and disability ( Peters 2004 ). Inclusive education offers the possibility of disrupting dominant notions of race, language, ability, gender, and religion ( Slee 2001 ). However, as national education systems appropriate the terminology of inclusive education, it is becoming, in many contexts, suspiciously like special education, a way of sorting and separating students who are viewed as not fitting the model student profile ( Slee 2001 ). Ainscow 2005 suggests that inclusive education requires organizing schools as communities of practice in which sets of tools structure participation and privilege particular kinds of practices. Rather, inclusive education comprises an agenda that transcends categorization of teachers and students ( Ferguson 2008 ). It is an agenda designed to advance learning as a constant companion throughout individual and collective lives. Understanding how communities draw on history, current practice, and a shared language to negotiate experience can generate transformative methods. In a similar vein, when teachers are conscious of the impact of their daily practice (i.e., learning in practice), they will create new approaches that will help them transcend the structural boundaries that maintain current divisions between special and inclusive education ( Florian 2008 ). Shogren and Wehmeyer 2014 notes that inclusive education is in its third generation. It has moved from a rights perspective to a person-centered perspective. Now, a third set of principles are necessary to ensure that it emerges as the common standard of practice for all students: (1) empowerment, (2) capacity building as well as prevention, and (3) notions of productivity and contribution.

Ainscow, Mel. 2005. Developing inclusive education systems: What are the levers for change? Journal of Educational Change 6.2: 109–124.

DOI: 10.1007/s10833-005-1298-4

Ainscow draws on work with the Inclusion Index to identify levers to transform local contexts through disrupting educators’ historical views of understanding difference. Through local inquiry and discourse, practitioners can reframe their systematic practices that serve to isolate and separate students with disabilities from other learners.

Ferguson, Dianne L. 2008. International trends in inclusive education: The continuing challenge to teach each one and everyone. European Journal of Special Needs Education 23.2: 109–120.

DOI: 10.1080/08856250801946236

Ferguson describes key shifts needed for inclusive education. She calls for moving the focus of teachers from how to teach to how to support and facilitate student learning, providing learner supports rather than creating a fixed menu of services, shifting professional practices from individual to collective acts, and creating networks with families to renew and improve outcomes.

Florian, Lani. 2008. Special or inclusive education: Future trends. British Journal of Special Education 35.4: 202–208.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8578.2008.00402.x

Florian affirms that differences among learners are to be expected. Select pedagogies based on content demands and learner needs. Specialist support can make teachers’ practice more effective for diverse learners when teachers have the professional tools to frame the challenges that learners face and make use of specialist knowledge in designing powerful learning experiences.

Peters, Susan J. 2004. Inclusive education: An EFA strategy for all children . Washington, DC: World Bank, Human Development Network.

Peters recommends a series of actions based on a policy analysis of agreements made by governments on behalf of children and individuals with disabilities. While much implementation continues to be uneven, the weight of policy documents pushes forward the inclusive education agenda. Key is the relationship between policy and activity at the national, state, and local education levels.

Shogren, Karrie A., and Michael L. Wehmeyer. 2014. Using the core concepts framework to understand three generations of inclusive practices. Inclusion 2.3: 237–247.

DOI: 10.1352/2326-6988-2.3.237

From a focus on where students with disabilities are educated to how they learn to what they should learn encapsulates the inclusive education movement. Further, reframing disability as an interaction between local contexts and individual constraints and affordances shifts the work of teachers and caregivers to environmental and learning designers.

Skrtic, Thomas M., Wayne Sailor, and Kathleen Gee. 1996. Voice, collaboration, and inclusion democratic themes in educational and social reform initiatives. Remedial and Special Education 17.3: 142–157.

DOI: 10.1177/074193259601700304

Inclusive education is a response to the need for interdisciplinary, locally negotiated policies and practices that acknowledge growing heterogeneity and differentiation in human needs. Excellence in education systems must be predicated on equity and counter-marginalization reforms.

Slee, Roger. 2001. Social justice and the changing directions in educational research: The case of inclusive education. International Journal of Inclusive Education 5.2–3: 167–177.

DOI: 10.1080/13603110010035832

Appropriation of inclusive education by special education means that a separate system is inevitable unless the inclusive education movement is decoupled from notions of categorization, remediation, and parallel educational systems, one for students identified as disabled and the other for all others.

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The Alliance for Inclusive Education

What is inclusive education.

Definition of inclusion

Inclusive education – also called inclusion – is education that includes everyone, with non-disabled and Disabled people (including those with “special educational needs”) learning together in mainstream schools, colleges and universities.

This means the system must adapt to include Disabled people – they should not have to adapt to the system (see models of disability ). The education system must recognise that it creates barriers for Disabled learners, for instance if parts of the school are inaccessible. Disabled pupils and students may require adaptations and support to access the curriculum.

Here are some examples:

• Faisal is a wheelchair user. So that he can go to the debating society after school, the accessible minibus collects him at a later time.
• Jenny has dyslexia. So that she can study a book along with the class, the teacher asks her to listen to the audio book rather than reading the text.
• James is Deaf and communicates using sign language. Instead of taking him out of his lessons to have a separate lesson with a sign language teacher, his teachers, teaching assistants and the pupils learn to sign too in order to communicate with him.

What inclusion is not

• Special schools and colleges just for Disabled children and students. This is called segregation.
• Separate units in mainstream schools and colleges. This is segregation too.
• Disabled children and students in mainstream education, but without enough support for them to be truly included. This is called integration. Disabled learners are in mainstream education, but their needs are not met.

What is inclusive practice?

Inclusive practice can be defined as attitudes and methods that ensure all learners can access mainstream education. Everyone works to make sure all learners feel welcome and valued, and that they get the right support to help them develop their talents and achieve their goals. When education is truly inclusive it can actually benefit all learners, not only Disabled learners.

More questions? Read our Inclusion FAQ and if the answer isn’t there, ask us!

You can read more about why we believe in inclusive education here .

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We’re a small organisation and campaigning work is hard to fund. If everyone reading this page gave us £1, we could increase our campaigning activitity significantly. Why not donate and help us make inclusive education a reality?

Further reading:

Resources for education professionals

Resources for families

More definitions

Also see below for more links to articles on our website.

Inclusive education reading list for students

Angharad Beckett, Associate Professor of Political Sociology at the University of Leeds, has put together this handy reading list for education students and others interested in inclusive education

Current debates: part 1

Academic and ALLFIE trustee Dr Miro Griffiths MBE begins a three part series for education students on some of the key issues around inclusive education.

Part 1: Understanding disability and the problem with “special”

Video: Inclusion at Eastlea Community School, Newham

Children and staff of Eastlea Community School in Newham, London, talk about how inclusion works in the school, the challenges and benefits and what it means to them.

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Inclusive pedagogy: addressing special needs in the classroom

Individual differences between learners are to be expected because each person’s characteristics, preferences and experiences are uniquely interrelated, and learning occurs through shared activity in social contexts. The idea of difference as ordinary is a productive way of thinking about how to understand and respond to the complexities inherent in educating diverse groups of learners.

This starting point is an alternative to traditional approaches to learner differences which assume that some will require something ‘additional’ or ‘different’ to what is ordinarily available to others. Indeed, this is the definition of special needs education in many countries. The problem is that this designation can also lower expectations about what a learner can achieve and impact negatively on learning outcomes.

In response, inclusive pedagogy shifts our thinking away from the idea of special needs education as a specialised response to individual difficulty, towards one that focuses on extending what is ordinarily available to everyone in the classroom. The importance of participation in classroom activities is privileged over judgments about what learners can and can’t do. For example, rather than setting work for learners based on teacher judgment about ability, a teacher might give the whole class a range of differentiated lesson options based on knowledge of the range of interests, previous experiences, needs and abilities of everyone. By giving everyone a choice, individual needs can be met without pre-determining who can do what.

This doesn’t mean that individual differences are unimportant. A teacher may have two learners, both of whom are experiencing what appear to be similar difficulties. However, if one is also a non-native language speaker and the other is a learner with attention-deficit disorder, then the differences between the learners means that their  misunderstanding of the topic may be different. In this case the teacher would use strategies that are matched to the purpose of the learning and adapt these strategies using their knowledge about the differences between the learners. In a lesson aimed at improving reading comprehension, the teacher might introduce a story via a discussion about a topic to support the non-native language speaker, and a graphic organiser to support the child with attention deficit disorder. Both strategies would be embedded in whole class teaching and be beneficial to everyone.

Classroom teaching is complex. It depends on responding to the particular and very different circumstances of many individuals simultaneously. When teachers encounter individual learners who are having difficulties, they need responses that work for everybody. The change in thinking associated with inclusive pedagogy does not mean that specialist knowledge is irrelevant or unnecessary. The ways that teachers use this knowledge and how they work with specialists is what differentiates inclusive pedagogy from other approaches.

Today, many learners with sensory impairments attend mainstream schools and these learners may be provided additional support from a specialist teacher for the deaf. In this situation, how the class and specialist teacher work together to support the deaf learner in the classroom determines the extent to which practice is working to include or exclude the learner . If the specialist teacher and the class teacher take a team-teaching approach, so that the deaf learner is not isolated by the presence of an additional adult in the classroom, then the additional support will be beneficial and inclusive. If the specialist teacher works collaboratively in a classroom that includes a deaf learner, rather than with the learner alone, this can benefit all learners in the classroom.

Inclusive pedagogy is an approach to teaching diverse learner groups that seeks to accommodate individual differences between learners without treating them differently to others. Classroom teachers and other specialists are urged to view learner difficulties as professional dilemmas for practice rather than as problems of learners. By working collaboratively, they can develop ways of responding to individual differences that promote a good experience of learning and good outcomes for everyone.

Additional information

• Education type: School Education
• Target audience: Teacher Student Teacher Head Teacher / Principal Pedagogical Adviser School Psychologist Teacher Educator Researcher
• Target audience ISCED: Primary education (ISCED 1) Lower secondary education (ISCED 2) Upper secondary education (ISCED 3)

About the authors

Professor Emerita Lani Florian, Bell Chair of Education, Moray House School of Education and Sport at IETL, University of Edinburgh. Professor Emerita Florian provides technical assistance on inclusive education projects across countries and international agencies. She has worked with UNICEF, the OECD, the British Council, the Council of Europe and many others to promote inclusive pedagogy. She contributes to several academic journals and publications as a board member, editor or co-author. 

School subjects

Key competences.

Comprehensive Inclusive Education

Inclusive education for students who receive special education services involves both access and learning in general education and the inclusive Individualized Education Program (IEP). All members of a student’s educational team, including the student and their family, have a role to play in effective instruction and support in inclusive settings.

Download the guide, Comprehensive Inclusive Education in Washington , for a step-by-step process to develop inclusive IEPs and promote equitable learning opportunities and post-school outcomes for students eligible for special education services.

OSPI affirms the following principles in this work:

• Every student is a general education student.
• The general education curriculum
• The school’s routines and activities
• Students learn and thrive when they are valued, visible members of their classroom and school communities and activities.
• Step 1: Collaborative Conversations

Collaborate with the family and school team for a solid foundation to start the school year. 

• Step 2: Creating an Inclusive IEP

Develop an IEP that honors student and family voice and intentionally aligns supports to the general education settings, curriculum, routines, activities, and social opportunities that are available for all students in the school.

• Step 3: Education Day-at-a-Glance

Efficiently implement the IEP by linking goals and supports with the student’s daily schedule.

Step 4: Ongoing Education and Support

Continually collaborate to implement the IEP and ensure all students are learning.

Using This Resource

This resource is designed for flexibility. Use it to:

• Follow the step-by-step process to write and implement inclusive IEPs for students with disabilities, particularly those with extensive support needs
• Learn from the story of “Jacob,” a student with extensive support needs, as his instructional team develops his inclusive IEP and implements an inclusive educational program across the school day 
• Understand the rationale for inclusionary practices and high-quality special education services for students with disabilities, including state requirements and a recent Supreme Court decision 
• Connect to practical resources and related content for each step on OSPI’s website 
• Adapt the information in this resource for local districts to support professional development, policies, procedures, and practices that result in improved inclusive IEPs and implementation of high quality inclusive education programs

Acknowledgments

Comprehensive Inclusive Education in Washington © 2024 by the Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI) and the TIES Center is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. To view a copy of this license, visit CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 .

This website may contain links to websites operated by third parties. These links are provided for your convenience only and do not constitute or imply any endorsement or monitoring by OSPI.

The example of “Jacob” in Comprehensive Inclusive Education in Washington is based on a compilation of students. A special thank you of appreciation is extended to the Washington family who generously permitted the photos of their son and his inclusive educational experiences at Ruby Bridges Elementary School in Woodinville, WA to be included in this resource. The photos beautifully illustrate what inclusive education might look like.

Comprehensive Inclusive Education in Washington is adapted from Comprehensive Inclusive Education: General Education and the Inclusive IEP , originally developed through a partnership between the TIES Center and the University of Washington Haring Center for Inclusive Education. TIES Center (2017-2022) was supported primarily through a Cooperative Agreement (#H326Y170004) with the Research to Practice Division, Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education. Opinions expressed in this guide do not necessarily reflect those of the U.S. Department of Education or Offices within it. Project Officer: Susan Weigert. All rights reserved.

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Education is a fundamental right that every individual should have access to. However, historically, the education system has been exclusionary towards certain groups of people, including those with disabilities, those from marginalized communities, and those from low-income families. Inclusive education aims to address this issue by creating a learning environment that is welcoming and accessible to all students, regardless of their background or ability.

There are various definitions of inclusive education, and different authors and organizations have presented their views on what it means. In this article, we will discuss ten definitions of inclusive education by different authors and organizations, along with their explanations.

Table of contents

#1 unesco’s definition of inclusive education, #2 john hattie’s definition of inclusive education, #3 mel ainscow’s definition of inclusive education, #4 leonard cheshire disability’s definition of inclusive education, #5 nancy fraser’s definition of inclusive education, #6 association for childhood education international’s definition of inclusive education:, #7 world health organization’s definition of inclusive education, #8 australian government’s definition of inclusive education, #9 european agency for special needs and inclusive education’s definition of inclusive education:, #10 national association of special education teachers’ definition of inclusive education:, bibliography.

According to UNESCO, inclusive education is “a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all learners through increasing participation in learning, cultures, and communities, and reducing exclusion within and from education” (UNESCO, 2009).

UNESCO emphasizes that inclusive education is not just about including students with disabilities but also about ensuring that students from all backgrounds and abilities have equal opportunities to learn and participate in their school communities.

John Hattie, a prominent education researcher, defines inclusive education as “an approach to schooling that aims to increase access and engagement in learning for all students by identifying and removing barriers that may prevent some students from participating fully” (Hattie, 2012).

Hattie stresses that inclusive education is not just about accommodating students with disabilities but also about recognizing and addressing other barriers to learning, such as poverty, cultural differences, and language barriers.

Mel Ainscow, a leading researcher in inclusive education, defines it as “a process of increasing the participation of all students in schools and other learning environments, reducing their exclusion from these settings, and responding to their diverse needs” (Ainscow, 2005).

Ainscow argues that inclusive education requires a shift from a focus on the individual student to a focus on the entire school community. This means that schools must not only provide support to individual students with disabilities but also create a welcoming and inclusive environment for all students.

Leonard Cheshire Disability, a UK-based disability charity, defines inclusive education as “education that is accessible to all, regardless of their background or ability, and that recognizes and responds to the diverse needs of all learners” (Leonard Cheshire Disability, n.d.).

The organization emphasizes that inclusive education is not just about accommodating students with disabilities but also about addressing the broader societal barriers that may prevent some students from accessing education.

Nancy Fraser, a philosopher and social theorist, defines inclusive education as “a project of social justice that aims to overcome systemic exclusions and subordinations in educational institutions and practices, in order to enable all individuals to participate as full and equal members of society” (Fraser, 2009).

Fraser argues that inclusive education is not just about addressing individual needs but also about challenging the societal structures that perpetuate inequalities in education. This requires a fundamental shift in the way we approach education, towards a more equitable and just system.

The Association for Childhood Education International (ACEI) defines inclusive education as “an approach to education that values diversity and the unique contributions each student brings to the classroom, and that seeks to create a learning environment where all students feel valued, supported, and included” (ACEI, 2016).

ACEI emphasizes that inclusive education is not just about accommodating students with disabilities but also about recognizing and valuing the diversity of all students, including their cultural, linguistic, and socio-economic backgrounds.

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines inclusive education as “a strategy to ensure that all children, including those with disabilities, have access to quality education that meets their diverse learning needs and prepares them for life, work, and citizenship” (WHO, 2021).

WHO highlights the importance of providing quality education that is tailored to the individual needs of each student, including those with disabilities. Inclusive education, according to WHO, is not just about providing access to education but also about ensuring that students are prepared for life beyond the classroom.

The Australian Government’s Department of Education defines inclusive education as “a philosophy that values diversity and recognizes the rights of all students to have access to quality education that is responsive to their individual needs” (Australian Government, 2021).

The government emphasizes the importance of providing support to all students, including those with disabilities, to enable them to participate fully in education. Inclusive education, according to the Australian government, requires a whole-school approach that values diversity and promotes equity.

The European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education defines inclusive education as “a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all learners, by increasing participation in learning, cultures, and communities, and reducing exclusion from education” (European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education, 2014).

The agency emphasizes the importance of creating a welcoming and inclusive environment for all students, regardless of their background or ability. Inclusive education, according to the agency, requires a holistic approach that addresses the individual needs of each student and the broader social and cultural context in which they learn.

The National Association of Special Education Teachers (NASET) defines inclusive education as “a comprehensive approach to educating students with disabilities that emphasizes their full inclusion in the general education classroom and their access to the general education curriculum” (NASET, 2021).

NASET emphasizes the importance of providing support to students with disabilities in the general education classroom, rather than segregating them into special education classrooms. Inclusive education, according to NASET, requires collaboration between general and special education teachers to provide an inclusive and supportive learning environment for all students.

Inclusive education is a complex and multifaceted concept that encompasses a broad range of ideas and approaches. Each of the definitions presented in this article offers a unique perspective on what inclusive education means and how it can be achieved. Common themes across these definitions include the importance of valuing diversity, providing support to all students, tailoring education to individual needs, promoting equity and social justice, and creating a welcoming and inclusive learning environment. While there is no single definition of inclusive education that captures all of its nuances and complexities, the various perspectives presented in this article offer valuable insights into how we can create a more inclusive and equitable education system.

As we continue to strive towards a more inclusive education system, it is essential to keep these diverse perspectives in mind and work collaboratively to promote access, equity, and excellence for all learners.

• ACEI. (2016). Inclusive Education: What it Means, Proven Strategies, and a Case Study. Association for Childhood Education International. https://www.acei.org/inclusive-education-what-it-means-proven-strategies-and-a-case-study/
• Ainscow, M. (2005). Developing inclusive education systems: What are the levers for change? Journal of Educational Change, 6(2), 109-124.
• Australian Government. (2021). Inclusive Education. Department of Education, Skills and Employment. https://www.education.gov.au/inclusive
• European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education. (2014). Key principles for promoting quality in inclusive education: Recommendations for practice. https://www.european-agency.org/resources/publications/key-principles-for-promoting-quality-in-inclusive-education
• Kugelmass, J. W., & Hall, T. E. (2021). Inclusive Education. In R. Mayer & P. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Learning Disabilities (pp. 601-617). Springer.
• National Association of Special Education Teachers. (2021). Inclusive Education: The Benefits and the Obstacles. https://www.naset.org/754.0.html
• UNESCO. (1994). The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education. http://www.unesco.org/education/pdf/SALAMA_E.PDF
• UNESCO. (2015). Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the Implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/incheon-framework-for-action.pdf
• World Health Organization. (2021). Inclusive education. https://www.who.int/disabilities/policies/inclusive-education/en/
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Teaching Students About the Size of Kansas City

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In 1990, the United States Congress revamped the All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) into what is now known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) . This has helped guarantee the rights that individuals with disabilities have to the education that they deserve. 

This legislation has been bolstered in 1997 and more importantly in 2004 with the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 to give greater access to general education classrooms to those with disabilities. The goal is to include these individuals as much as possible into the general education environment to help give opportunities to them. This is regarded as Inclusive Education . 

Implementation

How this typically works in schools is that individuals with disabilities will be in general education classrooms periodically throughout the day with usually one to two support classes to ensure their success. According to the National Center for Education Statistics in their 2015 study on individuals ages 6-12 under IDEA 95% were placed in regular schools and of that 95 % , 62.% spent at least 80% of the time inside general classes.   

It is vital for teachers to take a closer look at their instructional methods and ensure that they’re not only meeting the Individualized Education Plan (IEP) of these students but making sure a creative and inclusive environment is made. One of the biggest fears with creating an inclusive classroom with individuals who have disabilities is that it will negatively affect the general education students is one that, on the surface, might seem realistic at first glance but the research shows the exact opposite. 

Gail McGregor of the Allegheny University of the Health Sciences in her study Inclusive Schooling Practices: Pedagogical and Research Foundations. A Synthesis of the Literature that Informs Best Practices about Inclusive Schooling . She summarizes some of the additional research done in this area with the following:

“Results indicated no difference in engagement rates between classrooms, suggesting no negative impact on instructional opportunities. Similar findings are reported by McDonnell et al. (1997) in another direct comparison of classrooms with and without students with severe disabilities. […]. In each case, the general education students and students with disabilities that were part of small cooperative groups demonstrated academic gains.”

In McGregor’s abstract she states “although many teachers are initially reluctant about inclusion, they become confident in their abilities with support and experience” which shows the other major fear, this time on the side of the teachers, is also alleviated. Once teachers realize that many of the best classroom strategies and practices to create an inclusive learning environment are nearly identical to regular best classroom strategies then this daunting idea becomes less so. Some of these practices are:

• Peer Tutoring and Cooperative Learning
• Focus on Small Group Activities
• Independent Practice (allows for individualized attention)
• Tiered Lessons
•  Universal Design for Learning (UDL) 
• Differentiated Instruction

Inclusive classrooms are becoming more common as schools try to integrate special education into regular classes. Thankfully due to the mounting research showcasing the benefits of doing so not only for individuals with disabilities but for regular students as well, there is less resistance to such integration. Teachers just have to continue utilizing their educational best practices and they’ll continue to be just as successful when their classes weren’t as integrated.

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